Risk Factors and Preventions of Breast Cancer

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Abstract

Breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer deaths among women. The development of breast cancer is a multi-step process involving multiple cell types, and its prevention remains challenging in the world. Early diagnosis of breast cancer is one of the best approaches to prevent this disease. In some developed countries, the 5-year relative survival rate of breast cancer patients is above 80% due to early prevention. In the recent decade, great progress has been made in the understanding of breast cancer as well as in the development of preventative methods. The pathogenesis and tumor drug-resistant mechanisms are revealed by discovering breast cancer stem cells, and many genes are found related to breast cancer. Currently, people have more drug options for the chemoprevention of breast cancer, while biological prevention has been recently developed to improve patients' quality of life. In this review, we will summarize key studies of pathogenesis, related genes, risk factors and preventative methods on breast cancer over the past years. These findings represent a small step in the long fight against breast cancer.

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Tumor metastasis: molecular insights and evolving paradigms.

Scott Valastyan, Robert A Weinberg (2011)

Metastases represent the end products of a multistep cell-biological process termed the invasion-metastasis cascade, which involves dissemination of cancer cells to anatomically distant organ sites and their subsequent adaptation to foreign tissue microenvironments. Each of these events is driven by the acquisition of genetic and/or epigenetic alterations within tumor cells and the co-option of nonneoplastic stromal cells, which together endow incipient metastatic cells with traits needed to generate macroscopic metastases. Recent advances provide provocative insights into these cell-biological and molecular changes, which have implications regarding the steps of the invasion-metastasis cascade that appear amenable to therapeutic targeting. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Breast cancer and hormone-replacement therapy in the Million Women Study.

Valerie Beral (2003)

Current use of hormone-replacement therapy (HRT) increases the incidence of breast cancer. The Million Women Study was set up to investigate the effects of specific types of HRT on incident and fatal breast cancer. 1084110 UK women aged 50-64 years were recruited into the Million Women Study between 1996 and 2001, provided information about their use of HRT and other personal details, and were followed up for cancer incidence and death. Half the women had used HRT; 9364 incident invasive breast cancers and 637 breast cancer deaths were registered after an average of 2.6 and 4.1 years of follow-up, respectively. Current users of HRT at recruitment were more likely than never users to develop breast cancer (adjusted relative risk 1.66 [95% CI 1.58-1.75], p<0.0001) and die from it (1.22 [1.00-1.48], p=0.05). Past users of HRT were, however, not at an increased risk of incident or fatal disease (1.01 [0.94-1.09] and 1.05 [0.82-1.34], respectively). Incidence was significantly increased for current users of preparations containing oestrogen only (1.30 [1.21-1.40], p<0.0001), oestrogen-progestagen (2.00 [1.88-2.12], p<0.0001), and tibolone (1.45 [1.25-1.68], p<0.0001), but the magnitude of the associated risk was substantially greater for oestrogen-progestagen than for other types of HRT (p<0.0001). Results varied little between specific oestrogens and progestagens or their doses; or between continuous and sequential regimens. The relative risks were significantly increased separately for oral, transdermal, and implanted oestrogen-only formulations (1.32 [1.21-1.45]; 1.24 [1.11-1.39]; and 1.65 [1.26-2.16], respectively; all p<0.0001). In current users of each type of HRT the risk of breast cancer increased with increasing total duration of use. 10 years' use of HRT is estimated to result in five (95% CI 3-7) additional breast cancers per 1000 users of oestrogen-only preparations and 19 (15-23) additional cancers per 1000 users of oestrogen-progestagen combinations. Use of HRT by women aged 50-64 years in the UK over the past decade has resulted in an estimated 20000 extra breast cancers, 15000 associated with oestrogen-progestagen; the extra deaths cannot yet be reliably estimated. Current use of HRT is associated with an increased risk of incident and fatal breast cancer; the effect is substantially greater for oestrogen-progestagen combinations than for other types of HRT.

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Ras in cancer and developmental diseases.

Alberto Fernandez-Medarde, Eugenio Santos (2011)

Somatic, gain-of-function mutations in ras genes were the first specific genetic alterations identified in human cancer about 3 decades ago. Studies during the last quarter century have characterized the Ras proteins as essential components of signaling networks controlling cellular proliferation, differentiation, or survival. The oncogenic mutations of the H-ras, N-ras, or K-ras genes frequently found in human tumors are known to throw off balance the normal outcome of those signaling pathways, thus leading to tumor development. Oncogenic mutations in a number of other upstream or downstream components of Ras signaling pathways (including membrane RTKs or cytosolic kinases) have been detected more recently in association with a variety of cancers. Interestingly, the oncogenic Ras mutations and the mutations in other components of Ras/MAPK signaling pathways appear to be mutually exclusive events in most tumors, indicating that deregulation of Ras-dependent signaling is the essential requirement for tumorigenesis. In contrast to sporadic tumors, separate studies have identified germline mutations in Ras and various other components of Ras signaling pathways that occur in specific association with a number of different familial, developmental syndromes frequently sharing common phenotypic cardiofaciocutaneous features. Finally, even without being a causative force, defective Ras signaling has been cited as a contributing factor to many other human illnesses, including diabetes and immunological and inflammatory disorders. We aim this review at summarizing and updating current knowledge on the contribution of Ras mutations and altered Ras signaling to development of various tumoral and nontumoral pathologies.

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Author and article information

Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): Int J Biol Sci

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Int. J. Biol. Sci

Journal ID (publisher-id): ijbs

Title: International Journal of Biological Sciences

Publisher: Ivyspring International Publisher (Sydney )

ISSN (Electronic): 1449-2288

Publication date Collection: 2017

Publication date (Electronic): 1 November 2017

Volume: 13

Issue: 11

Pages: 1387-1397

Affiliations

[1 ]Key Lab of Vaccine against Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome, Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, China;

[2 ]Centre of Laboratory Medicine, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital.

Author notes

✉ Corresponding authors: Ping-ping Yao, Key Lab of Vaccine against Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome, Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, China. Phone: 86-571-87115312; Fax: 86-571-87115314; E-mail: ppyao@ 123456cdc.zj.cn . Han-Ping Zhu, Key Lab of Vaccine against Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome, Zhejiang Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Hangzhou, China. Phone: 86-571-87115313; Fax: 86-571-87115316; E-mail: hpzhu@ 123456cdc.zj.cn .

Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

Article

Publisher ID: ijbsv13p1387

DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.21635

PMC ID: 5715522

PubMed ID: 29209143

SO-VID: 6e96b8b2-ae9d-4db9-83b7-8853a87a830a

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This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY-NC) license ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/). See http://ivyspring.com/terms for full terms and conditions.

Risk Factors and Preventions of Breast Cancer

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Karger: Oncology

Most cited references 92

Tumor metastasis: molecular insights and evolving paradigms.

Breast cancer and hormone-replacement therapy in the Million Women Study.

Ras in cancer and developmental diseases.

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