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      Associations of Household Expenditure and Marital Status With Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Japanese Adults: Analysis of Nationally Representative Surveys Translated title: 日本人成人における家計支出および婚姻状況と循環器疾患のリスク要因の関連

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          Abstract

          Background

          Socioeconomic inequalities in health and social determinants of health are important issues in public health and health policy. We investigated associations of cardiovascular risk factors with household expenditure (as an indicator of socioeconomic status) and marital status in Japan.

          Methods

          We combined data from 2 nationally representative surveys—the Comprehensive Survey of Living Conditions and the National Health and Nutrition Survey, 2003–2007—and analyzed sex-specific associations of household expenditure quartiles and marital status with cardiovascular risk factors, including obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and diabetes, among 6326 Japanese adults (2664 men and 3662 women) aged 40 to 64 years.

          Results

          For men, there was no statistically significant association between household expenditure and cardiovascular risk factors. For women, lower household expenditure was significantly associated with obesity, hypertension, diabetes, and the presence of multiple risk factors: the ORs for the lowest versus the highest quartile ranged from 1.39 to 1.71. In a comparison of married and unmarried participants, the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors was higher among married women and lower among married men.

          Conclusions

          Lower socioeconomic status, as indicated by household expenditure, was associated with cardiovascular risk factors in Japanese women. Socioeconomic factors should be considered in health promotion and prevention of cardiovascular disease.

          Translated abstract

          個人の社会経済的な状況によって健康水準が異なることが知られており、健康格差や健康の社会的決定要因が公衆衛生や健康政策で重要になっている。この研究は、社会経済的要因として家計支出と婚姻状況に注目し、これらと循環器疾患のリスク要因との関連について分析を行った。調査は、国の代表的な調査である国民生活基礎調査と国民健康・栄養調査(平成15~19年)に参加した40歳から64歳の男性2664名と女性3662名のデータを用いた。家計支出ならびに婚姻状況によって、循環器疾患のリスク要因である肥満、高血圧、脂質異常症、糖尿病の割合が異なるかを解析した。男性では、家計支出とリスク要因とに有意な関係は認められなかった。一方、女性では、家計支出が低いほど、肥満、高血圧、糖尿病、メタボリックシンドロームに準じた複数のリスクを持つ者の割合が高かった。女性において、最も家計支出の高い群に比較した最も低い群のオッズ比は1.39から1.71だった。婚姻状態との関連では、女性では既婚者は未婚者よりリスク要因の割合が高くなっていたが、男性では逆の関係が認められた。この研究では、女性でのみ家計支出は循環器疾患のリスク要因と関連していた。社会経済的に好ましくない状況にある者ほど、循環器疾患になりやすくなる可能性が示唆されたが、性別や婚姻状態によりその関連性は異なった。健康づくりや循環器疾患の予防において社会経済的な要因にも考慮しなければならないことが示された。

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          Socioeconomic factors and cardiovascular disease: a review of the literature.

          Despite recent declines in mortality, cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in the United States today. It appears that many of the major risk factors for coronary disease have been identified. Researchers are still learning about different modifiable factors that may influence cardiovascular diseases. Socioeconomic status may provide a new focus. The principal measures of SES have been education, occupation, and income or combinations of these. Education has been the most frequent measure because it does not usually change (as occupation or income might) after young adulthood, information about education can be obtained easily, and it is unlikely that poor health in adulthood influences level of education. However, other measures of SES have merit, and the most informative strategy would incorporate multiple indicators of SES. A variety of psychosocial measures--for example, certain aspects of occupational status--may be important mediators of SES and disease. The hypothesis that high job strain may adversely affect health status has a rational basis and is supported by evidence from a limited number of studies. There is a considerable body of evidence for a relation between socioeconomic factors and all-cause mortality. These findings have been replicated repeatedly for 80 years across measures of socioeconomic level and in geographically diverse populations. During 40 years of study there has been a consistent inverse relation between cardiovascular disease, primarily coronary heart disease, and many of the indicators of SES. Evidence for this relation has been derived from prevalence, prospective, and retrospective cohort studies. Of particular importance to the hypothesis that SES is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease was the finding by several investigators that the patterns of association of SES with coronary disease had changed in men during the past 30 to 40 years and that SES has been associated with the decline of coronary mortality since the mid-1960s. However, the declines in coronary mortality of the last few decades have not affected all segments of society equally. There is some evidence that areas with the poorest socioenvironmental conditions experience later onset in the decline in cardiovascular mortality. A number of studies suggest that poor living conditions in childhood and adolescence contribute to increased risk of arteriosclerosis. Some of these studies have been criticized because of their nature, and others for inadequate control of confounding factors.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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            Socioeconomic status and health in the Japanese population.

            There is growing interest in the influence of socioeconomic status (SES) on health. Individual SES has been shown to be closely related to mortality, morbidity, health-related behavior and access to health care services in Western countries. Whether the same set of social determinants accounts for higher rates of mortality or morbidity in Japan is questionable, because over the past decade the magnitude of the social stratification within the society has increased due to economic and social circumstances. SES must be interpreted within the economic, social, demographic and cultural contexts of a specific country. In this report we discuss the impact of individuals' socioeconomic position on health in Japan with regard to educational attainment, occupational gradient/class, income level, and unemployment. This review is based mainly on papers indexed in Medline/PubMed between 1990 and 2007. We find that socioeconomic differences in mortality, morbidity and risk factors are not uniformly small in Japan. The majority of papers investigate the relationship between education, occupational class and health, but low income and unemployment are not examined sufficiently in Japan. The results also indicate that different socioeconomic contexts and inequality contribute to the mortality, morbidity, and biological and behavioral risk factors in Japan, although the pattern and direction of the relationships may not necessarily be the same in terms of size, pattern, distribution, magnitude and impact as in Western countries. In particular, the association between higher occupational status and lower mortality, as well as higher educational attainment and either mortality or morbidity, is not as strongly expressed among the Japanese. Japan is still one of the healthiest and most egalitarian nations in the world, and social inequalities within the population are less expressed. However, the magnitude of the social stratification has started to increase, and this is an alarming sign.
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              Socioeconomic position, gender, health behaviours and biomarkers of cardiovascular disease and diabetes.

              Socio-economic gradients in cardiovascular disease (CVD) and diabetes have been found throughout the developed world and there is some evidence to suggest that these gradients may be steeper for women. Research on social gradients in biological risk factors for CVD and diabetes has received less attention and we do not know the extent to which gradients in biomarkers vary for men and women. We examined the associations between two indicators of socio-economic position (education and household income) and biomarkers of diabetes and cardiovascular disease (CVD) for men and women in a national, population-based study of 11,247 Australian adults. Multi-level linear regression was used to assess associations between education and income and glucose tolerance, dyslipidaemia, blood pressure (BP) and waist circumference before and after adjustment for behaviours (diet, smoking, physical activity, TV viewing time, and alcohol use). Measures of glucose tolerance included fasting plasma glucose and insulin and the results of a glucose tolerance test (2 h glucose) with higher levels of each indicating poorer glucose tolerance. Triglycerides and High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) Cholesterol were used as measures of dyslipidaemia with higher levels of the former and lower levels of the later being associated with CVD risk. Lower education and low income were associated with higher levels of fasting insulin, triglycerides and waist circumference in women. Women with low education had higher systolic and diastolic BP and low income women had higher 2 h glucose and lower HDL cholesterol. With only one exception (low income and systolic BP), all of these estimates were reduced by more than 20% when behavioural risk factors were included. Men with lower education had higher fasting plasma glucose, 2 h glucose, waist circumference and systolic BP and, with the exception of waist circumference, all of these estimates were reduced when health behaviours were included in the models. While low income was associated with higher levels of 2-h glucose and triglycerides it was also associated with better biomarker profiles including lower insulin, waist circumference and diastolic BP. We conclude that low socio-economic position is more consistently associated with a worse profile of biomarkers for CVD and diabetes for women. Copyright 2010. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                J Epidemiol
                J Epidemiol
                JE
                Journal of Epidemiology
                Japan Epidemiological Association
                0917-5040
                1349-9092
                5 January 2013
                1 December 2012
                2013
                : 23
                : 1
                : 21-27
                Affiliations
                [01] [1 ]Department of Community Health and Medicine, Yamaguchi University School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan [1 ]山口大学医学部地域医療推進学講座
                [02] [2 ]Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College London, London, UK [2 ]University College London-Department of Epidemiology and Public Health
                Author notes
                Address for Correspondence. Yoshiharu Fukuda, Department of Community Health and Medicine, Yamaguchi University School of Medicine, 1-1-1 Minami Kogushi, Ube, Yamaguchi 755–8505, Japan (e-mail: fukuday@ 123456yamaguchi-u.ac.jp ).
                Article
                JE20120021
                10.2188/jea.JE20120021
                3700239
                23208515
                6c4af3fc-db73-46b3-b1a3-d7520b2ea294
                © 2013 Japan Epidemiological Association.

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 9 February 2012
                : 8 August 2012
                Categories
                Original Article

                health inequalities,socioeconomic factor,household expenditure,cardiovascular risk factor,marital status

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