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      A Review and Meta-Analysis of Age-Based Stereotype Threat: Negative Stereotypes, Not Facts, Do the Damage

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          Abstract

          Stereotype threat effects arise when an individual feels at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about their group and consequently underperforms on stereotype relevant tasks ( Steele, 2010). Among older people, underperformance across cognitive and physical tasks is hypothesized to result from age-based stereotype threat (ABST) because of negative age-stereotypes regarding older adults’ competence. The present review and meta-analyses examine 22 published and 10 unpublished articles, including 82 effect sizes ( N = 3882) investigating ABST on older people’s ( M age = 69.5) performance. The analysis revealed a significant small-to-medium effect of ABST ( d = .28) and important moderators of the effect size. Specifically, older adults are more vulnerable to ABST when (a) stereotype-based rather than fact-based manipulations are used ( d = .52); (b) when performance is tested using cognitive measures ( d = .36); and (c) occurs reliably when the dependent variable is measured proximally to the manipulation. The review raises important theoretical and methodological issues, and areas for future research.

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          An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance.

          Toni Schmader, Michael Johns, Chad Forbes (2008)
          Research showing that activation of negative stereotypes can impair the performance of stigmatized individuals on a wide variety of tasks has proliferated. However, a complete understanding of the processes underlying these stereotype threat effects on behavior is still lacking. The authors examine stereotype threat in the context of research on stress arousal, vigilance, working memory, and self-regulation to develop a process model of how negative stereotypes impair performance on cognitive and social tasks that require controlled processing, as well as sensorimotor tasks that require automatic processing. The authors argue that stereotype threat disrupts performance via 3 distinct, yet interrelated, mechanisms: (a) a physiological stress response that directly impairs prefrontal processing, (b) a tendency to actively monitor performance, and (c) efforts to suppress negative thoughts and emotions in the service of self-regulation. These mechanisms combine to consume executive resources needed to perform well on cognitive and social tasks. The active monitoring mechanism disrupts performance on sensorimotor tasks directly. Empirical evidence for these assertions is reviewed, and implications for interventions designed to alleviate stereotype threat are discussed.
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            Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.

            C Steele, J. Aronson (1995)
            Stereotype threat is being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group. Studies 1 and 2 varied the stereotype vulnerability of Black participants taking a difficult verbal test by varying whether or not their performance was ostensibly diagnostic of ability, and thus, whether or not they were at risk of fulfilling the racial stereotype about their intellectual ability. Reflecting the pressure of this vulnerability, Blacks underperformed in relation to Whites in the ability-diagnostic condition but not in the nondiagnostic condition (with Scholastic Aptitude Tests controlled). Study 3 validated that ability-diagnosticity cognitively activated the racial stereotype in these participants and motivated them not to conform to it, or to be judged by it. Study 4 showed that mere salience of the stereotype could impair Blacks' performance even when the test was not ability diagnostic. The role of stereotype vulnerability in the standardized test performance of ability-stigmatized groups is discussed.
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              Experimental disclosure and its moderators: a meta-analysis.

              Joanne Frattaroli (2006)
              Disclosing information, thoughts, and feelings about personal and meaningful topics (experimental disclosure) is purported to have various health and psychological consequences (e.g., J. W. Pennebaker, 1993). Although the results of 2 small meta-analyses (P. G. Frisina, J. C. Borod, & S. J. Lepore, 2004; J. M. Smyth, 1998) suggest that experimental disclosure has a positive and significant effect, both used a fixed effects approach, limiting generalizability. Also, a plethora of studies on experimental disclosure have been completed that were not included in the previous analyses. One hundred forty-six randomized studies of experimental disclosure were collected and included in the present meta-analysis. Results of random effects analyses indicate that experimental disclosure is effective, with a positive and significant average r-effect size of .075. In addition, a number of moderators were identified. (c) 2006 APA, All Rights Reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Ulrich Mayr: Role: Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Psychol Aging
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Psychol Aging
                Title: Psychology and Aging
                Publisher: American Psychological Association
                ISSN (Print): 0882-7974
                ISSN (Electronic): 1939-1498
                Publication date (Electronic): 26 January 2015
                Publication date (Print): March 2015
                Volume: 30
                Issue: 1
                Pages: 180-193
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Centre for the Study of Group Processes, University of Kent
                Author notes
                We thank the three anonymous reviewers for their thorough reviews of this article and valuable suggestions for improvements.
                This work was supported by the UK Economic and Social Research Council (Grant ES/I012141/1).
                [*] [* ]Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dominic Abrams, School of Psychology, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NP, UK d.abrams@ 123456kent.ac.uk
                Article
                Publisher ID: pag_30_1_180 Publisher ID: 2015-02669-001
                DOI: 10.1037/a0038586
                PMC ID: 4360754
                PubMed ID: 25621742
                SO-VID: 68b489fd-e6f1-440a-98e2-90ca872917f2
                Copyright © © 2015 The Author(s)
                License:

                This article has been published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s). Author(s) grant(s) the American Psychological Association the exclusive right to publish the article and identify itself as the original publisher.

                History
                Date received : 18 June 2014
                Date revision received : 10 November 2014
                Date accepted : 14 November 2014
                Categories
                Subject: Articles

                Keywords: stereotype threat,age,performance,cognition,memory
                Data availability:
                Keywords: stereotype threat, age, performance, cognition, memory

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