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      Estimation of Japanese encephalitis virus infection prevalence in mosquitoes and bats through nationwide sentinel surveillance in Indonesia

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          Abstract

          Indonesia belongs to endemic areas of Japanese encephalitis (JE), yet data regarding the true risk of disease transmission are lacking. While many seroprevalence studies reported its classic enzootic transmission, data related to the role of bats in the transmission of JE virus are limited. This current study aimed to identify the potential role of bats in the local transmission of the JE virus to aid the ongoing active case surveillance in Indonesia, in order to estimate the transmission risk. Mosquitoes and bats were collected from 11 provinces in Indonesia. The detection of the JE virus used polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Maps were generated to analyze the JE virus distribution pattern. Logistic regression analysis was done to identify risk factors of JE virus transmission. JE virus was detected in 1.4% (7/483) of mosquito pools and in 2.0% (68/3,322) of bat samples. Mosquito species positive for JE virus were Culex tritaeniorhynchus and Cx. vishnui, whereas JE-positive bats belonged to the genera Cynopterus, Eonycteris, Hipposideros, Kerivoula, Macroglossus, Pipistrellus, Rousettus, Scotophilus and Thoopterus. JE-positive mosquitoes were collected at the same sites as the JE-positive bats. Collection site nearby human dwellings (AOR: 2.02; P = 0.009) and relative humidity of >80% (AOR: 2.40; P = 0.001) were identified as independent risk factors for JE virus transmission. The findings of the current study highlighted the likely ongoing risk of JE virus transmission in many provinces in Indonesia, and its potential implications on human health.

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          Impact of regional climate change on human health.

          The World Health Organisation estimates that the warming and precipitation trends due to anthropogenic climate change of the past 30 years already claim over 150,000 lives annually. Many prevalent human diseases are linked to climate fluctuations, from cardiovascular mortality and respiratory illnesses due to heatwaves, to altered transmission of infectious diseases and malnutrition from crop failures. Uncertainty remains in attributing the expansion or resurgence of diseases to climate change, owing to lack of long-term, high-quality data sets as well as the large influence of socio-economic factors and changes in immunity and drug resistance. Here we review the growing evidence that climate-health relationships pose increasing health risks under future projections of climate change and that the warming trend over recent decades has already contributed to increased morbidity and mortality in many regions of the world. Potentially vulnerable regions include the temperate latitudes, which are projected to warm disproportionately, the regions around the Pacific and Indian oceans that are currently subjected to large rainfall variability due to the El Niño/Southern Oscillation sub-Saharan Africa and sprawling cities where the urban heat island effect could intensify extreme climatic events.
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            Urbanization and Disease Emergence: Dynamics at the Wildlife–Livestock–Human Interface

            Urbanization is characterized by rapid intensification of agriculture, socioeconomic change, and ecological fragmentation, which can have profound impacts on the epidemiology of infectious disease. Here, we review current scientific evidence for the drivers and epidemiology of emerging wildlife-borne zoonoses in urban landscapes, where anthropogenic pressures can create diverse wildlife–livestock–human interfaces. We argue that these interfaces represent a critical point for cross-species transmission and emergence of pathogens into new host populations, and thus understanding their form and function is necessary to identify suitable interventions to mitigate the risk of disease emergence. To achieve this, interfaces must be studied as complex, multihost communities whose structure and form are dictated by both ecological and anthropological factors.
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              Bats: important reservoir hosts of emerging viruses.

              Bats (order Chiroptera, suborders Megachiroptera ["flying foxes"] and Microchiroptera) are abundant, diverse, and geographically widespread. These mammals provide us with resources, but their importance is minimized and many of their populations and species are at risk, even threatened or endangered. Some of their characteristics (food choices, colonial or solitary nature, population structure, ability to fly, seasonal migration and daily movement patterns, torpor and hibernation, life span, roosting behaviors, ability to echolocate, virus susceptibility) make them exquisitely suitable hosts of viruses and other disease agents. Bats of certain species are well recognized as being capable of transmitting rabies virus, but recent observations of outbreaks and epidemics of newly recognized human and livestock diseases caused by viruses transmitted by various megachiropteran and microchiropteran bats have drawn attention anew to these remarkable mammals. This paper summarizes information regarding chiropteran characteristics and information regarding 66 viruses that have been isolated from bats. From these summaries, it is clear that we do not know enough about bat biology; we are doing too little in terms of bat conservation; and there remain a multitude of questions regarding the role of bats in disease emergence.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS One
                plos
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                12 October 2022
                2022
                : 17
                : 10
                : e0275647
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Doctoral Study Program of Health and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Public Health and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
                [2 ] World Health Organization Indonesia Country Office, Jakarta, Indonesia
                [3 ] Department of Child Health, Faculty of Medicine, Public Health and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
                [4 ] Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
                [5 ] Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Public Health and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
                University of Oklahoma Norman Campus: The University of Oklahoma, UNITED STATES
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0945-6325
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4443-4751
                Article
                PONE-D-21-38395
                10.1371/journal.pone.0275647
                9555671
                36223381
                5ec3aabd-2ba7-47e9-bf72-531131a8f1da
                © 2022 Diptyanusa et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 7 December 2021
                : 11 September 2022
                Page count
                Figures: 3, Tables: 4, Pages: 18
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100005466, Bat Conservation International;
                Award ID: SS2002
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100012521, Universitas Gadjah Mada;
                Award ID: 3143/UN1.P.III/DIT-LIT/PT/2021
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100012521, Universitas Gadjah Mada;
                Award ID: 307/UN1/FKKMK/PPKE/PT/2021
                Award Recipient :
                AD received funding from the Bat Conservation International (Grant No. SS2002). TBTS received funding from Universitas Gadjah Mada (Ref. No. 3143/UN1.P.III/DIT-LIT/PT/2021 and Ref. No. 307/UN1/FKKMK/PPKE/PT/2021). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
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