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      Gut Microbiota and Inflammation

      review-article
      Author(s): , *
      Publication date (Electronic):
      Journal: Nutrients
      Publisher: MDPI
      Keywords: probiotics, inflammation, gut microbiota

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          Abstract

          Systemic and local inflammation in relation to the resident microbiota of the human gastro-intestinal (GI) tract and administration of probiotics are the main themes of the present review. The dominating taxa of the human GI tract and their potential for aggravating or suppressing inflammation are described. The review focuses on human trials with probiotics and does not include in vitro studies and animal experimental models. The applications of probiotics considered are systemic immune-modulation, the metabolic syndrome, liver injury, inflammatory bowel disease, colorectal cancer and radiation-induced enteritis. When the major genomic differences between different types of probiotics are taken into account, it is to be expected that the human body can respond differently to the different species and strains of probiotics. This fact is often neglected in discussions of the outcome of clinical trials with probiotics.

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          Liver fibrosis.

          Ramón Bataller, David A. Brenner (2005)
          Liver fibrosis is the excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins including collagen that occurs in most types of chronic liver diseases. Advanced liver fibrosis results in cirrhosis, liver failure, and portal hypertension and often requires liver transplantation. Our knowledge of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of liver fibrosis has greatly advanced. Activated hepatic stellate cells, portal fibroblasts, and myofibroblasts of bone marrow origin have been identified as major collagen-producing cells in the injured liver. These cells are activated by fibrogenic cytokines such as TGF-beta1, angiotensin II, and leptin. Reversibility of advanced liver fibrosis in patients has been recently documented, which has stimulated researchers to develop antifibrotic drugs. Emerging antifibrotic therapies are aimed at inhibiting the accumulation of fibrogenic cells and/or preventing the deposition of extracellular matrix proteins. Although many therapeutic interventions are effective in experimental models of liver fibrosis, their efficacy and safety in humans is unknown. This review summarizes recent progress in the study of the pathogenesis and diagnosis of liver fibrosis and discusses current antifibrotic strategies.
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            Toll-like receptors: critical proteins linking innate and acquired immunity.

            S Akira, K Takeda, T Kaisho (2001)
            Recognition of pathogens is mediated by a set of germline-encoded receptors that are referred to as pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs). These receptors recognize conserved molecular patterns (pathogen-associated molecular patterns), which are shared by large groups of microorganisms. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) function as the PRRs in mammals and play an essential role in the recognition of microbial components. The TLRs may also recognize endogenous ligands induced during the inflammatory response. Similar cytoplasmic domains allow TLRs to use the same signaling molecules used by the interleukin 1 receptors (IL-1Rs): these include MyD88, IL-1R--associated protein kinase and tumor necrosis factor receptor--activated factor 6. However, evidence is accumulating that the signaling pathways associated with each TLR are not identical and may, therefore, result in different biological responses.
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              Through Ageing, and Beyond: Gut Microbiota and Inflammatory Status in Seniors and Centenarians

              Elena Biagi, Lotta Nylund, Marco Candela … (2010)
              Background Age-related physiological changes in the gastrointestinal tract, as well as modifications in lifestyle, nutritional behaviour, and functionality of the host immune system, inevitably affect the gut microbiota, resulting in a greater susceptibility to infections. Methodology/Principal Findings By using the Human Intestinal Tract Chip (HITChip) and quantitative PCR of 16S rRNA genes of Bacteria and Archaea, we explored the age-related differences in the gut microbiota composition among young adults, elderly, and centenarians, i.e subjects who reached the extreme limits of the human lifespan, living for over 100 years. We observed that the microbial composition and diversity of the gut ecosystem of young adults and seventy-years old people is highly similar but differs significantly from that of the centenarians. After 100 years of symbiotic association with the human host, the microbiota is characterized by a rearrangement in the Firmicutes population and an enrichment in facultative anaerobes, notably pathobionts. The presence of such a compromised microbiota in the centenarians is associated with an increased inflammatory status, also known as inflammageing, as determined by a range of peripheral blood inflammatory markers. This may be explained by a remodelling of the centenarians' microbiota, with a marked decrease in Faecalibacterium prauznitzii and relatives, symbiotic species with reported anti-inflammatory properties. As signature bacteria of the long life we identified specifically Eubacterium limosum and relatives that were more than ten-fold increased in the centenarians. Conclusions/Significance We provide evidence for the fact that the ageing process deeply affects the structure of the human gut microbiota, as well as its homeostasis with the host's immune system. Because of its crucial role in the host physiology and health status, age-related differences in the gut microbiota composition may be related to the progression of diseases and frailty in the elderly population.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Nutrients
                Journal ID (publisher-id): nutrients
                Title: Nutrients
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2072-6643
                Publication date (Electronic): 03 June 2011
                Publication date Collection: June 2011
                Volume: 3
                Issue: 6
                Pages: 637-682
                Affiliations
                Food Hygiene, Division of Applied Nutrition, Department of Food Technology, Engineering and Nutrition, Lund University, PO Box 124, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden; Email: asa.hakansson@ 123456appliednutrition.lth.se
                Author notes
                [* ]Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; Email: goran.molin@ 123456appliednutrition.lth.se ; Tel.: +46-46-222-8327; Fax: +46-46-222-4532.
                Article
                Publisher ID: nutrients-03-00637
                DOI: 10.3390/nu3060637
                PMC ID: 3257638
                PubMed ID: 22254115
                SO-VID: 5eb007ba-7dd9-44a2-9c8c-ed125292b846
                Copyright © © 2011 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
                License:

                This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).

                History
                Date received : 15 April 2011
                Date revision received : 19 May 2011
                Date accepted : 24 May 2011
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Nutrition & Dietetics
                Keywords: gut microbiota,inflammation, probiotics
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Nutrition & Dietetics
                Keywords: gut microbiota, inflammation, probiotics

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