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      Genetic and environmental influences on height from infancy to early adulthood: An individual-based pooled analysis of 45 twin cohorts

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          Abstract

          Height variation is known to be determined by both genetic and environmental factors, but a systematic description of how their influences differ by sex, age and global regions is lacking. We conducted an individual-based pooled analysis of 45 twin cohorts from 20 countries, including 180,520 paired measurements at ages 1–19 years. The proportion of height variation explained by shared environmental factors was greatest in early childhood, but these effects remained present until early adulthood. Accordingly, the relative genetic contribution increased with age and was greatest in adolescence (up to 0.83 in boys and 0.76 in girls). Comparing geographic-cultural regions (Europe, North-America and Australia, and East-Asia), genetic variance was greatest in North-America and Australia and lowest in East-Asia, but the relative proportion of genetic variation was roughly similar across these regions. Our findings provide further insights into height variation during childhood and adolescence in populations representing different ethnicities and exposed to different environments.

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          Most cited references30

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          Many sequence variants affecting diversity of adult human height.

          Adult human height is one of the classical complex human traits. We searched for sequence variants that affect height by scanning the genomes of 25,174 Icelanders, 2,876 Dutch, 1,770 European Americans and 1,148 African Americans. We then combined these results with previously published results from the Diabetes Genetics Initiative on 3,024 Scandinavians and tested a selected subset of SNPs in 5,517 Danes. We identified 27 regions of the genome with one or more sequence variants showing significant association with height. The estimated effects per allele of these variants ranged between 0.3 and 0.6 cm and, taken together, they explain around 3.7% of the population variation in height. The genes neighboring the identified loci cluster in biological processes related to skeletal development and mitosis. Association to three previously reported loci are replicated in our analyses, and the strongest association was with SNPs in the ZBTB38 gene.
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            The secular trend in human physical growth: a biological view.

            Nutritionists and anthropometric historians alike are familiar with the secular trend-height and weight in adults, and the rate of physical development in children, increasing since at least the mid 19th century. The social conditions which drive this trend are of interest to anthropometric historians, but the underlying biology is also important. Here the trends for height, weight and menarcheal age are summarised and contrasted. In Northern Europe, adult height has largely stabilised, and the age of menarche has also settled at around 13 years, while weight continues to increase due to obesity. The increase in height from one generation to the next occurs mainly in the first 2 years of life, due to increases in leg length. The height trend has lasted for 150 years or more, i.e. for six generations, because the rate of catch-up from one generation to the next is biologically constrained to avoid the cost of too rapid catch-up.
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              Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Weight, Height, and BMI from Birth to 19 Years of Age: An International Study of Over 12,000 Twin Pairs

              Objective To examine the genetic and environmental influences on variances in weight, height, and BMI, from birth through 19 years of age, in boys and girls from three continents. Design and Settings Cross-sectional twin study. Data obtained from a total of 23 twin birth-cohorts from four countries: Canada, Sweden, Denmark, and Australia. Participants were Monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) (same- and opposite-sex) twin pairs with data available for both height and weight at a given age, from birth through 19 years of age. Approximately 24,036 children were included in the analyses. Results Heritability for body weight, height, and BMI was low at birth (between 6.4 and 8.7% for boys, and between 4.8 and 7.9% for girls) but increased over time, accounting for close to half or more of the variance in body weight and BMI after 5 months of age in both sexes. Common environmental influences on all body measures were high at birth (between 74.1–85.9% in all measures for boys, and between 74.2 and 87.3% in all measures for girls) and markedly reduced over time. For body height, the effect of the common environment remained significant for a longer period during early childhood (up through 12 years of age). Sex-limitation of genetic and shared environmental effects was observed. Conclusion Genetics appear to play an increasingly important role in explaining the variation in weight, height, and BMI from early childhood to late adolescence, particularly in boys. Common environmental factors exert their strongest and most independent influence specifically in pre-adolescent years and more significantly in girls. These findings emphasize the need to target family and social environmental interventions in early childhood years, especially for females. As gene-environment correlation and interaction is likely, it is also necessary to identify the genetic variants that may predispose individuals to obesity.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Sci Rep
                Sci Rep
                Scientific Reports
                Nature Publishing Group
                2045-2322
                23 June 2016
                2016
                : 6
                : 28496
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Social Research, University of Helsinki , Helsinki, Finland
                [2 ]Department of Genetics, Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU , Leioa, Spain
                [3 ]Department of Education, Mokpo National University , Jeonnam, South Korea
                [4 ]Department of Public Health Nursing, Osaka City University , Osaka, Japan
                [5 ]The Danish Twin Registry, Department of Public Health, Epidemiology, Biostatistics & Biodemography, University of Southern Denmark, Odense , Denmark
                [6 ]Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University , Osaka, Japan
                [7 ]Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden
                [8 ]Department of Health Science, Ishikawa Prefectural Nursing University , Kahoku, Ishikawa, Japan
                [9 ]Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki , Helsinki, Finland
                [10 ]Istituto Superiore di Sanità - National Center for Epidemiology, Surveillance and Health Promotion , Rome, Italy
                [11 ]Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of Madeira , Funchal, Portugal
                [12 ]CIFI2D, Faculty of Sport, Porto, University of Porto , Portugal
                [13 ]Department of Noncommunicable Diseases Prevention, Qingdao Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Qingdao, China
                [14 ]HealthTwiSt GmbH , Berlin, Germany
                [15 ]Department of Psychology, Bielefeld University , Bielefeld, Germany
                [16 ]Boston University, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciencies , Boston, MA, USA
                [17 ]Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia , Vancouver, BC, Canada
                [18 ]Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine of USC, University of Southern California , Los Angeles, California, USA
                [19 ]USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center , Los Angeles, California, USA
                [20 ]Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University , Beijing, China
                [21 ]Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado , Boulder, Colorado, USA
                [22 ]Centre of Human Genetics, University Hospitals Leuven , Leuven, Belgium
                [23 ]Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Ghent University Hospitals , Ghent, Belgium
                [24 ]The Charles Bronfman Institute for Personalized Medicine, The Mindich Child Health and Development Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai , New York, NY, USA
                [25 ]Health Behaviour Research Centre, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Institute of Epidemiology and Health Care, University College London , London, UK
                [26 ]King’s College London, MRC Social, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience , London, UK
                [27 ]Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London , London, UK
                [28 ]State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University , Guangzhou, China
                [29 ]Centre for Eye Research Australia, University of Melbourne , Melbourne, Australia
                [30 ]Bandim Health Project, INDEPTH Network , Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
                [31 ]Research Center for Vitamins and Vaccines, Statens Serum Institute , Copenhagen, Denmark
                [32 ]Department of Endocrinology, Odense University Hospital , Odense, Denmark
                [33 ]Department of Infectious Diseases, Odense University Hospital , Odense, Denmark
                [34 ]Department of Radiology and Oncotherapy, Semmelweis University , Budapest, Hungary
                [35 ]Hungarian Twin Registry , Budapest, Hungary
                [36 ]The Hebrew University of Jerusalem , Jerusalem, Israel
                [37 ]Hadassah Hospital Obstetrics and Gynecology Department, Hebrew University Medical School , Jerusalem, Israel
                [38 ]Michigan State University , East Lansing, Michigan, USA
                [39 ]Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond, Virginia, USA
                [40 ]Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Psychiatry & Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond, Virginia, USA
                [41 ]Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota , Minneapolis, MN, USA
                [42 ]Department of Psychology, University of Southern California , Los Angeles, CA, USA
                [43 ]Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences, Washington , DC, USA
                [44 ]Department of Biological Psychology, VU University Amsterdam , Amsterdam, Netherlands
                [45 ]Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Royal Children’s Hospital , Parkville, Victoria, Australia
                [46 ]Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne , Parkville, Victoria, Australia
                [47 ]School of Epidemiology, Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ottawa , Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
                [48 ]École de psychologie, Université Laval , Québec, Canada
                [49 ]Institute of Genetic, Neurobiological, and Social Foundations of Child Development, Tomsk State University , Russian Federation
                [50 ]Département de psychologie, Université du Québec à Montréal , Montréal, Québec, Canada
                [51 ]École de psychoéducation, Université de Montréal , Montréal, Québec, Canada
                [52 ]Genetic Epidemiology Department, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute , Brisbane, Australia
                [53 ]Molecular Epidemiology Department, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute , Brisbane, Australia
                [54 ]Stanford Prevention Research Center, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine , Stanford, CA, USA
                [55 ]Center for Health Sciences, SRI International , Menlo Park, CA, USA
                [56 ]Department of Public Health Sciences, Karolinska Institutet , Stockholm, Sweden
                [57 ]MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit, University of Bristol , Bristol, U.K
                [58 ]Healthy Twin Association of Mongolia , Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
                [59 ]Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University , Hiroshima, Japan
                [60 ]Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin , Austin, TX, USA
                [61 ]Department of Twin Research and Genetic Epidemiology, King’s College , London, UK
                [62 ]School of Law, Psychology and Social Work, Örebro University , Sweden
                [63 ]Washington State Twin Registry, Washington State University - Health Sciences Spokane , Spokane, WA, USA
                [64 ]Washington State Twin Registry, Washington State University , Seattle, WA, USA
                [65 ]Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark , Odense, Denmark
                [66 ]Odense Patient data Explorative Network (OPEN), Odense University Hospital , Odense, Denmark
                [67 ]Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Pharmacology and Department of Clinical Genetics, Odense University Hospital , Odense, Denmark
                [68 ]Department of Statistics, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Kırıkkale University , Kırıkkale, Turkey
                [69 ]Departments of Psychiatry, Psychology, and Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond, USA
                [70 ]Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Washington , Seattle, WA, USA
                [71 ]Novo Nordisk Foundation Centre for Basic Metabolic Research (Section on Metabolic Genetics) and Department of Public Health, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen , Copenhagen, Denmark
                [72 ]Institute of Preventive Medicine, Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg Hospitals , The Capital Region, Copenhagen, Denmark
                [73 ]National Institute for Health and Welfare , Helsinki, Finland
                [74 ]Institute for Molecular Medicine FIMM , Helsinki, Finland
                Author notes
                Article
                srep28496
                10.1038/srep28496
                4917845
                27333805
                584c9b0a-95f5-44da-80fd-fca0167ff320
                Copyright © 2016, Macmillan Publishers Limited

                This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

                History
                : 07 March 2016
                : 02 June 2016
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