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      Transgender fathering: Children’s psychological and family outcomes

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          Abstract

          Medical advances in assisted reproductive technology have created new ways for transgender persons to become parents outside the context of adoption. The limited empirical data does not support the idea that trans-parenthood negatively impacts children’s development. However, the question has led to lively societal debates making the need for evidence-based studies urgent. We aimed to compare cognitive development, mental health, gender identity, quality of life and family dynamics using standardized instruments and experimental protocols in 32 children who were conceived by donor sperm insemination (DSI) in French couples with a cisgender woman and a transgender man, the transition occurring before conception. We constituted two control groups matched for age, gender and family status. We found no significant difference between groups regarding cognitive development, mental health, and gender identity, meaning that neither the transgender fatherhood nor the use of DSI had any impact on these characteristics. The results of the descriptive analysis showed positive psycho-emotional development. Additionally, when we asked raters to differentiate the family drawings of the group of children of trans-fathers from those who were naturally conceived, no rater was able to differentiate the groups above chance levels, meaning that what children expressed through family drawing did not indicate cues related to trans-fatherhood. However, when we assessed mothers and fathers with the Five-Minute Speech Sample, we found that the emotions expressed by transgender fathers were higher than those of cisgender fathers who conceived by sex or by DSI. We conclude that the first empirical data regarding child development in the context of trans-parenthood are reassuring. We believe that this research will also improve transgender couple care and that of their children in a society where access to care remains difficult in this population. However, further research is needed with adolescents and young adults.

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          The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice

          The psychological principles that govern the perception of decision problems and the evaluation of probabilities and outcomes produce predictable shifts of preference when the same problem is framed in different ways. Reversals of preference are demonstrated in choices regarding monetary outcomes, both hypothetical and real, and in questions pertaining to the loss of human lives. The effects of frames on preferences are compared to the effects of perspectives on perceptual appearance. The dependence of preferences on the formulation of decision problems is a significant concern for the theory of rational choice.
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            Socioeconomic inequalities and mental health problems in children and adolescents: a systematic review.

            Socioeconomic inequalities in health are an important topic in social sciences and public health research. However, little is known about socioeconomic disparities and mental health problems in childhood and adolescence. This study systematically reviews publications on the relationships between various commonly used indicators of socioeconomic status (SES) and mental health outcomes for children and adolescents aged four to 18 years. Studies published in English or German between 1990 and 2011 were included if they reported at least one marker of socioeconomic status (an index or indicators, e.g., household income, poverty, parental education, parental occupation status, or family affluence) and identified mental health problems using validated instruments. In total, 55 published studies met the inclusion criteria, and 52 studies indicated an inverse relationship between socioeconomic status and mental health problems in children and adolescents. Socioeconomically disadvantaged children and adolescents were two to three times more likely to develop mental health problems. Low socioeconomic status that persisted over time was strongly related to higher rates of mental health problems. A decrease in socioeconomic status was associated with increasing mental health problems. The strength of the correlation varied with age and with different indicators of socioeconomic status, whereas heterogeneous findings were reported for gender and types of mental health problems. The included studies indicated that the theoretical approaches of social causation and classical selection are not mutually exclusive across generations and specific mental health problems; these processes create a cycle of deprivation and mental health problems. The review draws attention to the diversity of measures used to evaluate socioeconomic status, which might have influenced the comparability of international epidemiological studies. Furthermore, the review highlights the need for individual-level early childhood interventions as well as a reduction in socioeconomic inequalities at a societal level to improve mental health in childhood and adolescence. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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              The inventory of parent and peer attachment: Individual differences and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence.

              The results of two studies are reported. Study I involved the development of the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA), a self-report instrument for use with adolescents. Subject were 179 college students aged 16-20 years. Item content of the instrument was suggested by attachment theory's formulations concerning the nature of feelings toward attachment figures. In Study II, the convergent validity of the IPPA was examined. Also, a hierarchial regression model was employed to investigate the association between quality of attachment and self-esteem, life-satisfaction, and affective status. Respondents were 86 adolescents from the Study I sample. As hypothesized, perceived quality of both parent and peer attachments was significantly related to psychological well-being. Results of the development of a theoretically focused, exploratory classification scheme indicated that adolescents classified as highly securely attached reported greater satisfaction with themselves, a higher likelihood of seeking social support, and less symptomatic response to stressful life events.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: SoftwareRole: ValidationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Formal analysisRole: SoftwareRole: ValidationRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: InvestigationRole: Validation
                Role: InvestigationRole: Validation
                Role: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Validation
                Role: InvestigationRole: Validation
                Role: InvestigationRole: Validation
                Role: Validation
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: MethodologyRole: Validation
                Role: Investigation
                Role: Investigation
                Role: InvestigationRole: Validation
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: MethodologyRole: Validation
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: MethodologyRole: SoftwareRole: SupervisionRole: Validation
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS One
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                19 November 2020
                2020
                : 15
                : 11
                : e0241214
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Service de Psychiatrie de l’Enfant et de l’Adolescent, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, AP-HP, Paris, France
                [2 ] CESP INSERM 1018, ED3C, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France
                [3 ] Clinique Dupré, Fondation Santé des Etudiants de France, Sceaux, France
                [4 ] Service Biologie de la Reproduction–CECOS, Hôpital Cochin, AP-HP, Paris, France
                [5 ] Service de Psychiatrie de l’Enfant et de l’Adolescent, CHU de Lille, Lille, France
                [6 ] Service de Psychiatrie de l’enfant et de l’adolescent, Département de l’enfant et de l’adolescent, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Genève, Geneva, Switzerland
                [7 ] Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France
                [8 ] Inserm, U669, Paris, France
                [9 ] Institut des Systèmes Intelligents et de Robotiques, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
                Universite de Bretagne Occidentale, FRANCE
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have read the journal’s policy and have the following potential competing interests: AC has received funding for this project from the Pfizer France Foundation and the Centre d’Activités de Recherche en Psychiatrie Infanto-Juvénile (CARPIJ). Pfizer is a commercial funder. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials. None of the authors have any commercial relationship with Pfizer, and there are no patents, products in development or marketed products associated with this research to declare.

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2394-6993
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8932-173X
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9475-7626
                Article
                PONE-D-20-19647
                10.1371/journal.pone.0241214
                7676740
                33211742
                569278f1-c741-4ffb-af12-745b9cd0a010
                © 2020 Condat et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 25 June 2020
                : 9 October 2020
                Page count
                Figures: 1, Tables: 3, Pages: 21
                Funding
                Funded by: Pfizer France
                Award Recipient :
                This project received funding from the Pfizer France Foundation and the Centre d’Activités et de Recherche en Psychiatrie Infanto-Juvénile (CARPIJ). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Research Article
                People and Places
                Population Groupings
                Age Groups
                Children
                People and Places
                Population Groupings
                Families
                Children
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Psychology
                Emotions
                Social Sciences
                Psychology
                Emotions
                People and Places
                Population Groupings
                Families
                Fathers
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Psychology
                Gender Identity
                Social Sciences
                Psychology
                Gender Identity
                Social Sciences
                Sociology
                Human Families
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Women's Health
                Obstetrics and Gynecology
                Assisted Reproductive Technology
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Developmental Biology
                Fertilization
                Insemination
                People and Places
                Population Groupings
                Families
                Mothers
                Custom metadata
                Data cannot be shared publicly because of ethical concerns related to the anonymity of participants. Data are available from the Ethics Committee CERES ( ethique.clinique@ 123456aphp.fr ) for researchers who meet the criteria for access to confidential data.

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                Uncategorized

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