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      Molecular Interactions in the Assembly of Coronaviruses

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      Advances in Virus Research
      Elsevier Inc.

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          This chapter describes the interactions between the different structural components of the viruses and discusses their relevance for the process of virion formation. Two key factors determine the efficiency of the assembly process: intracellular transport and molecular interactions. Many viruses have evolved elaborate strategies to ensure the swift and accurate delivery of the virion components to the cellular compartment(s) where they must meet and form (sub) structures. Assembly of viruses starts in the nucleus by the encapsidation of viral DNA, using cytoplasmically synthesized capsid proteins; nucleocapsids then migrate to the cytosol, by budding at the inner nuclear membrane followed by deenvelopment, to pick up the tegument proteins.

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          Human and bovine coronaviruses recognize sialic acid-containing receptors similar to those of influenza C viruses.

          Human coronavirus OC43 and bovine coronavirus elute from agglutinated chicken erythrocytes when incubated at 37 degrees C, suggesting the presence of a receptor-destroying enzyme. Moreover, bovine coronavirus exhibits an acetylesterase activity in vitro using bovine submaxillary mucin as substrate similar to the enzymatic activity found in influenza C viruses. Furthermore, pretreatment of erythrocytes with either influenza C virus or bovine coronavirus eliminates subsequent binding and agglutination by either coronaviruses or influenza C virus, whereas binding of influenza A virus remains intact. In addition, hemagglutination by coronaviruses can be inhibited by pretreatment of erythrocytes with Arthrobacter ureafaciens or Clostridium perfringens neuraminidase or by addition of sialic acid-containing gangliosides. These results suggest that, like influenza C viruses, human coronavirus OC43 and bovine coronavirus recognize O-acetylated sialic acid or a similar derivative as cell receptor.
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            Retargeting of coronavirus by substitution of the spike glycoprotein ectodomain: crossing the host cell species barrier.

            Coronaviruses generally have a narrow host range, infecting one or just a few species. Using targeted RNA recombination, we constructed a mutant of the coronavirus mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) in which the ectodomain of the spike glycoprotein (S) was replaced with the highly divergent ectodomain of the S protein of feline infectious peritonitis virus. The resulting chimeric virus, designated fMHV, acquired the ability to infect feline cells and simultaneously lost the ability to infect murine cells in tissue culture. This reciprocal switch of species specificity strongly supports the notion that coronavirus host cell range is determined primarily at the level of interactions between the S protein and the virus receptor. The isolation of fMHV allowed the localization of the region responsible for S protein incorporation into virions to the carboxy-terminal 64 of the 1,324 residues of this protein. This establishes a basis for further definition of elements involved in virion assembly. In addition, fMHV is potentially the ideal recipient virus for carrying out reverse genetics of MHV by targeted RNA recombination, since it presents the possibility of selecting recombinants, no matter how defective, that have regained the ability to replicate in murine cells.
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              Coronavirus M proteins accumulate in the Golgi complex beyond the site of virion budding.

              The prevailing hypothesis is that the intracellular site of budding of coronaviruses is determined by the localization of its membrane protein M (previously called E1). We tested this by analyzing the site of budding of four different coronaviruses in relation to the intracellular localization of their M proteins. Mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) and infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) grown in Sac(-) cells, and feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV) and transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) grown in CrFK cells, all budded exclusively into smooth-walled, tubulovesicular membranes located intermediately between the rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex, identical to the so-called budding compartment previously identified for MHV. Indirect immunofluorescence staining of the infected cells showed that all four M proteins accumulated in a perinuclear region. Immunogold microscopy localized MHV M and IBV M in the budding compartment; in addition, a dense labeling in the Golgi complex occurred, MHV M predominantly in trans-Golgi cisternae and trans-Golgi reticulum and IBV M mainly in the cis and medial Golgi cisternae. The corresponding M proteins of the four viruses, when independently expressed in a recombinant vaccinia virus system, also accumulated in the perinuclear area. Quantitative pulse-chase analysis of metabolically labeled cells showed that in each case the majority of the M glycoproteins carried oligosaccharide side chains with Golgi-specific modifications within 4 h after synthesis. Immunoelectron microscopy localized recombinant MHV M and IBV M to the same membranes as the respective proteins in coronavirus-infected cells, with the same cis-trans distribution over the Golgi complex. Our results demonstrate that some of the M proteins of the four viruses are transported beyond the budding compartment and are differentially retained by intrinsic retention signals; in addition to M, other viral and/or cellular factors are probably required to determine the site of budding.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Adv Virus Res
                Adv. Virus Res
                Advances in Virus Research
                Elsevier Inc.
                0065-3527
                1557-8399
                31 August 2005
                2005
                31 August 2005
                : 64
                : 165-230
                Affiliations
                Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands
                Article
                S0065-3527(05)64006-7
                10.1016/S0065-3527(05)64006-7
                7112327
                16139595
                4f9d8f0c-2305-4e65-8399-c7cdefc8a1e4
                Copyright © 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

                Since January 2020 Elsevier has created a COVID-19 resource centre with free information in English and Mandarin on the novel coronavirus COVID-19. The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect, the company's public news and information website. Elsevier hereby grants permission to make all its COVID-19-related research that is available on the COVID-19 resource centre - including this research content - immediately available in PubMed Central and other publicly funded repositories, such as the WHO COVID database with rights for unrestricted research re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for free by Elsevier for as long as the COVID-19 resource centre remains active.

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