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      Thresholds for the cost–effectiveness of interventions: alternative approaches Translated title: Seuils de rentabilité des interventions: approches alternatives Translated title: Umbrales de la rentabilidad de las intervenciones: enfoques alternativos Translated title: عتبات مردودية التدخلات: نهج بديلة Translated title: 干预措施的成本效益阈值:替代方法 Translated title: Пороговые значения для мероприятий, эффективных с точки зрения затрат: альтернативные подходы

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          Abstract

          Many countries use the cost–effectiveness thresholds recommended by the World Health Organization’s Choosing Interventions that are Cost–Effective project (WHO-CHOICE) when evaluating health interventions. This project sets the threshold for cost–effectiveness as the cost of the intervention per disability-adjusted life-year (DALY) averted less than three times the country’s annual gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. Highly cost–effective interventions are defined as meeting a threshold per DALY averted of once the annual GDP per capita. We argue that reliance on these thresholds reduces the value of cost–effectiveness analyses and makes such analyses too blunt to be useful for most decision-making in the field of public health. Use of these thresholds has little theoretical justification, skirts the difficult but necessary ranking of the relative values of locally-applicable interventions and omits any consideration of what is truly affordable. The WHO-CHOICE thresholds set such a low bar for cost–effectiveness that very few interventions with evidence of efficacy can be ruled out. The thresholds have little value in assessing the trade-offs that decision-makers must confront. We present alternative approaches for applying cost–effectiveness criteria to choices in the allocation of health-care resources.

          Résumé

          De nombreux pays utilisent les seuils de rentabilité recommandés par le projet WHO-CHOICE (Choosing Interventions that are Cost–Effective; en français: « choisir des interventions efficaces au meilleur coût ») de l'Organisation mondiale de la Santé lors de l'évaluation des interventions sanitaires. Ce projet définit le seuil de rentabilité comme étant égal au coût de l'intervention par espérance de vie corrigée de l'incapacité (EVCI) évitée moins trois fois le produit intérieur brut (PIB) annuel du pays par habitant. Les interventions très rentables sont définies comme celles satisfaisant un seuil par EVCI évitée égal à une fois le PIB annuel par habitant. Nous soutenons que le recours à ces seuils réduit la valeur des analyses de rentabilité et qu'il rend ces analyses trop grossières pour qu'elles soient utiles pour la prise de décision dans le domaine de la santé publique. L'utilisation de ces seuils est peu justifiée théoriquement, contourne le classement difficile mais nécessaire des valeurs relatives des interventions applicables localement et néglige l'examen de ce qui vraiment abordable. Les seuils de WHO-CHOICE fixent une limite de rentabilité si basse que très peu d'interventions présentant des preuves d'efficacité peuvent être exclues. Les seuils ont peu de valeur pour évaluer les compromis auxquels les décideurs doivent faire face. Nous présentons des approches alternatives pour l'application des critères de rentabilité aux choix liés à l'allocation des ressources de soins de santé.

          Resumen

          Numerosos países utilizan los umbrales de rentabilidad recomendados por el proyecto Elección de intervenciones rentables de la Organización Mundial de la Salud – (WHO-CHOICE) al evaluar las intervenciones de salud. Este proyecto establece el umbral de rentabilidad como el coste de la intervención por año de vida ajustado por discapacidad (AVAD) evitado, que es tres veces inferior al producto interno bruto anual del país (PIB) per cápita. Las intervenciones de rentabilidad elevada se definen como el cumplimiento de un umbral por AVAD evitado equivalente a una vez el PIB per cápita anual. Se arguye que la dependencia de estos umbrales reduce el valor de los análisis de rentabilidad y hace que dichos análisis sean demasiado contundentes para que resulten útiles en la mayoría de las decisiones en el campo de la salud pública. El uso de estos umbrales tiene una justificación teórica insuficiente, elude la clasificación difícil pero necesaria de los valores relativos de las intervenciones aplicables a nivel local y omite cualquier consideración de lo que es realmente asequible. Los umbrales de WHO-CHOICE establecen un límite de rentabilidad tan bajo que son muy pocas las intervenciones de eficacia probada que pueden descartarse. Los umbrales tienen poco valor a la hora de evaluar las ventajas y desventajas a las que los responsables de la toma de decisiones deben enfrentarse. Presentamos enfoques alternativos para la aplicación de los criterios de rentabilidad en las decisiones acerca de la asignación de los recursos de salud.

          ملخص

          تستخدم العديد من البلدان عتبات المردودية التي أوصى بها مشروع "اختيار التدخلات عالية المردود التابع لمنظمة الصحة العالمية" (WHO-CHOICE) عند تقدير التدخلات في مجال الصحة. ويحدد هذا المشروع عتبة المردودية على أنها تكلفة التدخل لكل سنة تم تفاديها من سنوات العمر المصححة باحتساب مدد العجز الأقل من ثلاث أضعاف الناتج الإجمالي المحلي السنوي للبلد لكل فرد. ويتم تعريف التدخلات عالية المردود على أنها تلبية العتبة لكل سنة تم تفاديها من سنوات العمر المصححة باحتساب مدد العجز لمرة واحدة من الناتج الإجمالي المحلي السنوي لكل فرد. ونرى أن الاعتماد على هذه العتبات يقلل من قيمة تحليلات المردودية ويجعل مثل هذه التحليلات عديمة الفائدة في معظم حالات اتخاذ القرار في مجال الصحة العمومية. ويستند استخدام هذه العتبات إلى مبرر نظري ضعيف ويتجنب الترتيب الصعب والضروري للقيم النسبية للتدخلات السارية على الصعيد المحلي ويغفل النظر عن النهج معقولة التكلفة بالفعل. وتحدد عتبات WHO-CHOICE عتبة دنيا للمردودية يمكن على أساسها استبعاد بضعة تدخلات ذات بيِّنات على الكفاءة. وتكون للعتبات قيمة قليلة في تقييم عمليات الموازنة التي يتعين على متخذي القرار مواجهتها. ونقدم نهجاً بديلة لتطبيق معايير المردودية على الاختيارات في تخصيص موارد الرعاية الصحية.

          摘要

          许多国家在评估卫生干预措施时使用世界卫生组织WHO-CHOICE(选择具有成本效益的干预措施项目)推荐的成本效益阈值。该项目将成本效益阈值设定为避免单位残疾调整生命年(DALY)的干预措施的成本低于国家年度人均国内生产总值(GDP)三倍。将极具成本效益的干预措施定义为达到以单倍年度人均国内生产总值避免的单位DALY的成本的阈值。我们主张,对这些阈值的依赖减少了成本效益分析的价值,使这种分析太过生硬,以致于对大多数公共卫生领域的决策来说用处不大。使用这些阈值几乎没有理论依据,绕开了做起来很难但又不得不去做的对当地适用干预措施相对价值排名,忽略了对任何有关什么才真正实惠的考虑。WHO-CHOICE阈值为成本效益设定的门槛这样低,以至于为数不多具有效力证据的干预措施也会被排除在外。阈值在评估决策者必须面对的权衡上价值微乎其微。我们提出了医疗资源分配方面的选择上成本效益标准应用的替代方法。

          Резюме

          Во многих странах используются пороговые значения эффективности затрат, рекомендованные рабочей программой ВОЗ «Выбор мероприятий, эффективных с точки зрения затрат» (WHO-CHOICE), при оценке проводимых мероприятий в области здравоохранения. Этот проект устанавливает пороговое значение эффективности затрат как стоимость мероприятия на количество предотвращенных лет жизни, утраченных в результате инвалидности (ДАЛИ), не превышающая три годовых валовых внутренних продукта (ВВП) страны на душу населения. При этом высокоэффективными мероприятиями считаются те, которые соответствуют пороговому значению на предотвращенное ДАЛИ в размере, не превышающем одного годового ВВП на душу населения. Мы утверждаем, что использование этих пороговых значений снижает стоимость анализа эффективности затрат и делает подобный анализ поверхностным для большинства случаев принятия решений в области общественного здравоохранения. Для использования этих пороговых значений не имеется достаточных теоретических обоснований, они упускают из виду трудоемкое, но необходимое ранжирование относительной стоимости применяемых локально мероприятий, а также не рассматривают доступность подобных мероприятий. Программой WHO-CHOICE устанавливается такая низкая планка для эффективности затрат, что лишь немногие мероприятия с признаками эффективности могут быть исключены. Эти пороговые значения не имеют большой ценности в процессе принятия компромиссных решений, с которыми приходится иметь дело отвественным лицам. Мы предлагаем альтернативные подходы для применения критериев эффективности затрат при выборе предпочтительных вариантов в процессе распределения ресурсов здравоохранения.

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          Most cited references36

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          Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards (CHEERS) statement

          Economic evaluations of health interventions pose a particular challenge for reporting. There is also a need to consolidate and update existing guidelines and promote their use in a user friendly manner. The Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards (CHEERS) statement is an attempt to consolidate and update previous health economic evaluation guidelines efforts into one current, useful reporting guidance. The primary audiences for the CHEERS statement are researchers reporting economic evaluations and the editors and peer reviewers assessing them for publication. The need for new reporting guidance was identified by a survey of medical editors. A list of possible items based on a systematic review was created. A two round, modified Delphi panel consisting of representatives from academia, clinical practice, industry, government, and the editorial community was conducted. Out of 44 candidate items, 24 items and accompanying recommendations were developed. The recommendations are contained in a user friendly, 24 item checklist. A copy of the statement, accompanying checklist, and this report can be found on the ISPOR Health Economic Evaluations Publication Guidelines Task Force website (http://www.ispor.org/TaskForces/EconomicPubGuidelines.asp). We hope CHEERS will lead to better reporting, and ultimately, better health decisions. To facilitate dissemination and uptake, the CHEERS statement is being co-published across 10 health economics and medical journals. We encourage other journals and groups, to endorse CHEERS. The author team plans to review the checklist for an update in five years.
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            Diarrhea incidence in low- and middle-income countries in 1990 and 2010: a systematic review

            Background Diarrhea is recognized as a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among children under 5 years of age in low- and middle-income countries yet updated estimates of diarrhea incidence by age for these countries are greatly needed. We conducted a systematic literature review to identify cohort studies that sought to quantify diarrhea incidence among any age group of children 0-59 mo of age. Methods We used the Expectation-Maximization algorithm as a part of a two-stage regression model to handle diverse age data and overall incidence rate variation by study to generate country specific incidence rates for low- and middle-income countries for 1990 and 2010. We then calculated regional incidence rates and uncertainty ranges using the bootstrap method, and estimated the total number of episodes for children 0-59 mo of age in 1990 and 2010. Results We estimate that incidence has declined from 3.4 episodes/child year in 1990 to 2.9 episodes/child year in 2010. As was the case previously, incidence rates are highest among infants 6-11 mo of age; 4.5 episodes/child year in 2010. Among these 139 countries there were nearly 1.9 billion episodes of childhood diarrhea in 1990 and nearly 1.7 billion episodes in 2010. Conclusions Although our results indicate that diarrhea incidence rates may be declining slightly, the total burden on the health of each child due to multiple episodes per year is tremendous and additional funds are needed to improve both prevention and treatment practices in low- and middle-income countries.
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              Use of cost-effectiveness analysis in health-care resource allocation decision-making: how are cost-effectiveness thresholds expected to emerge?

              An increasing number of health-care systems, both public and private, such as managed-care organizations, are adopting results from cost-effectiveness (CE) analysis as one of the measures to inform decisions on allocation of health-care resources. It is expected that thresholds for CE ratios may be established for the acceptance of reimbursement or formulary listing. This paper provides an overview of the development of and debate on CE thresholds, reviews threshold figures (i.e., cost per unit of health gain) currently proposed for or applied to resource-allocation decisions, and explores how thresholds may emerge. At the time of this review, there is no evidence from the literature that any health-care system has yet implemented explicit CE ratio thresholds. The fact that some government agencies have utilized results from CE analysis in pricing/reimbursement decisions allows for retrospective analysis of the consistency of these decisions. As CE analysis becomes more widely utilized in assisting health-care decision-making, this may cause decision-makers to become increasingly consistent. When CE analysis is conducted, well-established methodology should be used and transparency should be ensured. CE thresholds are expected to emerge in many countries, driven by the need for transparent and consistent decision-making. Future thresholds will likely be higher in most high-income countries than currently cited rules of thumb.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Bull World Health Organ
                Bull. World Health Organ
                BLT
                Bulletin of the World Health Organization
                World Health Organization
                0042-9686
                1564-0604
                01 February 2015
                15 December 2014
                : 93
                : 2
                : 118-124
                Affiliations
                [a ]Health Strategies International, 555 Fifty-ninth Street, Oakland, California, 94609, United States of America (USA).
                [b ]Center for Global Health and Development, Boston University, Boston, USA.
                [c ]Division of Cardiology, San Francisco General Hospital, San Francisco, USA.
                [d ]Institute for Health Policy Studies, University of California – San Francisco, San Francisco, USA.
                Author notes
                Correspondence to Elliot Marseille (email: emarseille@ 123456comcast.net ).
                Article
                BLT.14.138206
                10.2471/BLT.14.138206
                4339959
                25883405
                4cb641e4-f52d-4ad5-8394-f58e676d33c0
                (c) 2015 The authors; licensee World Health Organization.

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution IGO License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/legalcode), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. In any reproduction of this article there should not be any suggestion that WHO or this article endorse any specific organization or products. The use of the WHO logo is not permitted. This notice should be preserved along with the article's original URL.

                History
                : 05 March 2014
                : 27 October 2014
                : 26 November 2014
                Categories
                Policy & Practice

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