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Abstract
<p class="first" id="P1">Technological advances in microfabrication techniques in
combination with
organotypic cell and tissue models have enabled the realization of
microphysiological systems capable of recapitulating aspects of human physiology
<i>in vitro</i> with great fidelity. Concurrently, a number of
analysis techniques has been developed to probe and characterize these model
systems. However, many assays are still performed off-line, which severely
compromises the possibility to obtain real-time information from the samples
under examination, and which also limits the use of these platforms in
high-throughput analysis.
</p><p id="P2">In this review, we focus on sensing and actuation schemes that have
already been established or offer great potential to provide
<i>in
situ
</i> detection or manipulation of relevant cell or tissue samples
in microphysiological platforms. We will first describe methods that can be
integrated in a straightforward way and that offer potential multiplexing and/or
parallelization of sensing and actuation functions. These methods include
electrical impedance spectroscopy, electrochemical biosensors, and the use of
surface acoustic waves for manipulation and analysis of cells, tissue, and
multicellular organisms. In the second part, we will describe two sensor
approaches based on surface-plasmon resonance and mechanical resonators that
have recently provided new characterization features for biological samples,
while technological limitations for use in high-throughput applications still
exist.
</p>