The Effect of Sex and Age on Bone Morphology and Strength in the Metacarpus and Humerus in Beef-Cross-Dairy Cattle

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Abstract

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Bone strength in long bones is dependent on the strain it is exposed to via the forces from locomotion and bodyweight. The two strategies to increase bone strength (and reduce strain) are increasing either bone size or bone density. However, puberty initiates growth plate closure and, after puberty, most bone growth ceases. In many species, sex and age affect the relationship between bone strength and liveweight. The aim of this study was to examine how bone strength in two different limb bones was affected by age and sex in beef-cross-dairy cattle. The metacarpus and humerus was collected at time of slaughter and scanned using a peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) scanner to obtain measures of bone size and morphology from three cohorts of beef-cross-dairy cattle. Age, sex and live weight were also recorded. Live weight was the main predictor of bone size and strength, but age and sex influenced this relationship. This was reflected in heifers having a metacarpus that was shorter with less cross-sectional area and bone content than steers of the same liveweight and limited differences between steers and bulls of the same liveweight. At the same bone size older animals were heavier demonstrating an effect of age on bone maturity.

Abstract

In cattle, limited data have been reported about the relationship between live weight, bone size, and strength and how this relationship can be altered by factors such as sex and age. The aim of this study was to describe the relationship of peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT)-derived parameters of bone strength and morphology with live weight, age and sex in beef-cross-dairy cattle. All animals were weighed the day before slaughter. The metacarpus and humerus were collected at slaughter and scanned at the mid-diaphysis using pQCT. Live weight was the primary explanatory variable for bone size and strength in all cohorts. However, the effect of age was significant, such that magnitude of response to liveweight was less in the 24-month-old cohort. Sex was significant within cohorts in that bulls had a shorter metacarpus than steers and heifers had a shorter metacarpus than steers at age of slaughter.

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Control of osteoblast function and regulation of bone mass.

Shun-ichi Harada, Gideon Rodan (2003)

The skeleton is an efficient 'servo' (feedback-controlled/steady-state) system that continuously integrates signals and responses which sustain its functions of delivering calcium while maintaining strength. In many individuals, bone mass homeostasis starts failing in midlife, leading to bone loss, osteoporosis and debilitating fractures. Recent advances, spearheaded by genetic information, offer the opportunity to stop or reverse this downhill course.

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Bone "mass" and the "mechanostat": a proposal.

H M Frost (1987)

The observed fit of bone mass to a healthy animal's typical mechanical usage indicates some mechanism or mechanisms monitor that usage and control the three longitudinal growth, bone modeling, and BMU-based remodeling activities that directly determine bone mass. That mechanism could be named a mechanostat. Accumulated evidence suggests it includes the bone itself, plus mechanisms that transform its mechanical usage into appropriate signals, plus other mechanisms that detect those signals and then direct the above three biologic activities. In vivo studies have shown that bone strains in or above the 1500-3000 microstrain range cause bone modelling to increase cortical bone mass, while strains below the 100-300 microstrain range release BMU-based remodeling which then removes existing cortical-endosteal and trabecular bone. That arrangement provides a dual system in which bone modeling would adapt bone mass to gross overloading, while BMU-based remodeling would adapt bone mass to gross underloading, and the above strain ranges would be the approximate "setpoints" of those responses. The anatomical distribution of those mechanical usage effects are well known. If circulating agents or disease changed the effective setpoints of those responses their bone mass effects should copy the anatomical distribution of the mechanical usage effects. That seems to be the case for many agents and diseases, and several examples are discussed, including postmenopausal osteoporosis, fluoride effects, bone loss in orbit, and osteogenesis imperfecta. The mechanostat proposal is a seminal idea which fits diverse evidence but it requires critique and experimental study.

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Muscle and bone, two interconnected tissues.

Camille Tagliaferri, Yohann Wittrant, Marie-Jeanne Davicco … (2015)

As bones are levers for skeletal muscle to exert forces, both are complementary and essential for locomotion and individual autonomy. In the past decades, the idea of a bone-muscle unit has emerged. Numerous studies have confirmed this hypothesis from in utero to aging works. Space flight, bed rest as well as osteoporosis and sarcopenia experimentations have allowed to accumulate considerable evidence. Mechanical loading is a key mechanism linking both tissues with a central promoting role of physical activity. Moreover, the skeletal muscle secretome accounts various molecules that affect bone including insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-2), interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-15, myostatin, osteoglycin (OGN), FAM5C, Tmem119 and osteoactivin. Even though studies on the potential effects of bone on muscle metabolism are sparse, few osteokines have been identified. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and Wnt3a, which are secreted by osteocytes, osteocalcin (OCN) and IGF-1, which are produced by osteoblasts and sclerostin which is secreted by both cell types, might impact skeletal muscle cells. Cartilage and adipose tissue are also likely to participate to this control loop and should not be set aside. Indeed, chondrocytes are known to secrete Dickkopf-1 (DKK-1) and Indian hedgehog (Ihh) and adipocytes produce leptin, adiponectin and IL-6, which potentially modulate bone and muscle metabolisms. The understanding of this system will enable to define new levers to prevent/treat sarcopenia and osteoporosis at the same time. These strategies might include nutritional interventions and physical exercise.

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Author and article information

Contributors

Johann Kofler: Role: Academic Editor

Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): Animals (Basel)

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Animals (Basel)

Journal ID (publisher-id): animals

Title: Animals : an Open Access Journal from MDPI

Publisher: MDPI

ISSN (Electronic): 2076-2615

Publication date (Electronic): 05 March 2021

Publication date Collection: March 2021

Volume: 11

Issue: 3

Electronic Location Identifier: 694

Affiliations

[1 ]School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, 4442 Palmerston North, New Zealand; R.Hickson@ 123456massey.ac.nz (R.H.); P.J.Back@ 123456massey.ac.nz (P.B.); N.M.Schreurs@ 123456massey.ac.nz (N.S.); C.W.Rogers@ 123456massey.ac.nz (C.R.)

[2 ]School of Veterinary Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, 4442 Palmerston North, New Zealand; K.E.Dittmer@ 123456massey.ac.nz

Author notes

[* ]Correspondence: M.Gibson@ 123456massey.ac.nz

Author information

Michaela Gibson https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5970-4289

Rebecca Hickson https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9609-9599

Keren Dittmer https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1813-2197

Nicola Schreurs https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3381-9448

Chris Rogers https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4253-1825

Article

Publisher ID: animals-11-00694

DOI: 10.3390/ani11030694

PMC ID: 8000514

SO-VID: 2e3150b4-1cfe-47b4-af04-72ce303c9796

License:

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

The Effect of Sex and Age on Bone Morphology and Strength in the Metacarpus and Humerus in Beef-Cross-Dairy Cattle

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Abstract

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Pneumonia, sex, and the environment

Most cited references 30

Control of osteoblast function and regulation of bone mass.

Bone "mass" and the "mechanostat": a proposal.

Muscle and bone, two interconnected tissues.

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