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      Gender-Specific Differences in Surgical Site Infections: An Analysis of 438,050 Surgical Procedures from the German National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System

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          Summary

          Background

          Surgical site infections (SSI) are among the most frequent healthcare-associated infections. They impose a substantial burden with increased morbidity and exceeding healthcare costs. Risk factors such as age, diabetes, and smoking status are commonly accounted for in the literature, but few studies address gender differences.

          Methods

          Data from the German Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System (Krankenhaus-Infektions-Surveillance-System (KISS)) from 2005 to 2010 were analysed for cardiac, vascular, visceral, and orthopaedic surgery, with a total of 438,050 surgical procedures and 8,639 SSI. Rates of SSI and isolated pathogens were analysed for gender.

          Results

          Women had a lower rate of SSI (SSI/100 procedures) in abdominal surgery than men (2.92 vs. 4.37; p < 0.001). No gender-specific differences were found in orthopaedic and vascular surgery, while women had a higher risk for SSI in cardiac surgery (5.50 vs. 3.02; p < 0.001). Isolated pathogens showed differences for sensitive Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which were more frequent in women (both p = 0.007), while coagulase-negative staphylococci occurred more often in men (18.8 vs. 14.0%; p < 0.001).

          Conclusion

          Gender differences in SSI exist and are procedure-specific. The underlying mechanisms need to be further elucidated so that targeted measures for the prevention of SSI can be developed.

          Zusammenfassung

          Hintergrund

          Postoperative Wundinfektionen gehören zu den häufigsten nosokomialen Infektionen. Sie sind aufgrund der Erhöhung der Morbidität sowie der Gesundheitskosten von erheblicher Relevanz. Während die Risikofaktoren für Wundinfektionen wie Alter, Diabetes oder Rauchen in der Literatur vielfach adressiert wurden, so liegen kaum Daten zum Einfluss von Gender vor.

          Methoden

          Die Daten des deutschen Krankenhaus-Infektions-Surveillance-Systems (KISS) wurden für kardiochirurgische, gefäßchirurgische, viszeralchirurgische und orthopädische Eingriffe der Jahre 2005-2010 herangezogen. 438 050 Prozeduren und 8639 postoperative Wundinfektionen wurden registriert. Die Infektionsraten und isolierte Pathogene wurden in Bezug auf Gender analysiert.

          Ergebnisse

          Die Rate an postoperativen Wundinfektion (Infektionen/100 Operationen) war bei Frauen nach abdominalchirurgischen Eingriffen niedriger als bei Männern (2.92 vs. 4.37; p < 0,001). Es fanden sich keine Unterschiede bei orthopädischen und gefäßchirurgischen Eingriffen, wohingegen Frauen signifikant höhere Infektionsraten nach kardiochirurgischen Eingriffen hatten (5.50 vs. 3.02; p < 0,001). Bei den isolierten pathogenen Keimen zeigte sich eine erhöhte Rate von sensiblem Staphylococcus aureus und Pseudomonas aeruginosa bei Frauen (beide p = 0,007). Koagulase-negative Staphylokokken hatten bei Männern einen höheren Anteil (18.8 vs. 14.0%; p < 0,001).

          Schlussfolgerung

          Gender-Unterschiede in postoperativen Wundinfektionen existieren und sind von der Art des chirurgischen Eingriffs abhängig. Die zugrunde liegenden Mechanismen müssen weiter analysiert werden, um gezielte Präventionsmaßnahmen für das jeweilige Geschlecht ergreifen zu können.

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          Most cited references14

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          Gender specific differences in the immune response to infection.

          There are many instances where males and females differ in the susceptibility to infections. The reason for these differences in susceptibility is multifactorial. The primary cause is thought to be due to differences induced by sex hormones and their effects on gene expression as well as the immune system, but may also be due to innate physiological differences between males and females. This review summarizes gender specific differences seen in infections caused by bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses. Ultimately, gender specific differences appear to be dependent on the microbe causing the infection, as not every infection with a specific microbial type results in increased susceptibility of one gender over the other. This suggests that there is an interaction between gender specific immune differences and the specific immune response to individual microbes.
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            Bateman's principle and immunity: phenotypically plastic reproductive strategies predict changes in immunological sex differences.

            The sexes often differ in the reproductive trait limiting their fitness, an observation known as Bateman's principle. In many species, females are limited by their ability to produce eggs while males are limited by their ability to compete for and successfully fertilize those eggs. As well as promoting the evolution of sex-specific reproductive strategies, this difference may promote sex differences in other life-history traits due to their correlated effects. Sex differences in disease susceptibility and immune function are common. Two hypotheses based on Bateman's principle have been proposed to explain this pattern: that selection to prolong the period of egg production favors improved immune function in females, or that the expression of secondary sexual characteristics reduces immune function in males. Both hypotheses predict a relatively fixed pattern of reduced male immune function, at least in sexually mature individuals. An alternative hypothesis is that Bateman's principle does not dictate fixed patterns of reproductive investment, but favors phenotypically plastic reproductive strategies with males and females adaptively responding to variation in fitness-limiting resource availability. Under this hypothesis, neither sex is expected to possess intrinsically superior immune function, and immunological sex differences may vary in different environments. We demonstrate that sex-specific responses to experimental manipulation of fitness-limiting resources affects both the magnitude and direction of sex differences in immune function in Drosophila melanogaster. In the absence of sexual interactions and given abundant food, the immune function of adults was maximized in both sexes and there was no sex difference. Manipulation of food availability and sexual activity resulted in female-biased immune suppression when food was limited, and male-biased immune suppression when sexual activity was high and food was abundant. The immunological cost to males of increased sexual activity was found to be due in part to reduced time spent feeding. We suggest that for species similarly limited in their reproduction, phenotypic plasticity will be an important determinant of sex differences in immune function and other life-history traits.
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              • Article: not found

              Surgical site infections: Causative pathogens and associated outcomes.

              Surgical site infections (SSIs) are associated with substantial morbidity, mortality, and cost. Few studies have examined the causative pathogens, mortality, and economic burden among patients rehospitalized for SSIs. From 2003 to 2007, 8302 patients were readmitted to 97 US hospitals with a culture-confirmed SSI. We analyzed the causative pathogens and their associations with in-hospital mortality, length of stay (LOS), and cost. The proportion of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) significantly increased among culture-positive SSI patients during the study period (16.1% to 20.6%, respectively, P < .0001). MRSA (compared with other) infections had higher raw mortality rates (1.4% vs 0.8%, respectively, P=.03), longer LOS (median, 6 vs 5 days, respectively, P < .0001), and higher hospital costs ($7036 vs $6134, respectively, P < .0001). The MRSA infection risk-adjusted attributable LOS increase was 0.93 days (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.65-1.21; P < .0001), and cost increase was $1157 (95% CI: $641-$1644; P < .0001). Other significant independent risk factors increasing cost and LOS included illness severity, transfer from another health care facility, previous admission (<30 days), and other polymicrobial infections (P < .05). SSIs caused by MRSA increased significantly and were independently associated with economic burden. Admission illness severity, transfer from another health care setting, and recent hospitalization were associated with higher mortality, increased LOS, and cost. 2010 Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc. Published by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Viszeralmedizin
                Viszeralmedizin
                VIM
                Viszeralmedizin
                S. Karger Verlag für Medizin und Naturwissenschaften GmbH (Wilhelmstrasse 20A, P.O. Box · Postfach · Case postale, D-79095, Freiburg, Germany · Deutschland · Allemagne, Phone: +49 761 45 20 70, Fax: +49 761 4 52 07 14, information@karger.de )
                1662-6664
                1662-6672
                April 2014
                28 March 2014
                1 April 2015
                : 30
                : 2
                : 114-117
                Affiliations
                [1] a Klinik für Allgemein-, Viszeral-, Gefäß- und Thoraxchirurgie, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Mitte, Berlin, Germany
                [2] b Abteilung Biostatistik, Koordinierungszentrum für Klinische Studien, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Virchow, Berlin, Germany
                [3] c Nationales Referenzzentrum für die Surveillance von nosokomialen Infektionen, Berlin, Germany
                [4] d Institut für Hygiene und Umweltmedizin, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Berlin, Germany
                Author notes
                *Dr. med. Corinna Langelotz, Klinik für Allgemein-, Viszeral-, Gefäß- und Thoraxchirurgie, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Mitte, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany, corinna.langelotz@charite.de
                Article
                vim-0030-0114
                10.1159/000362100
                4513817
                26288585
                2b168216-2614-40f9-af96-987f1758071c
                Copyright © 2014 by S. Karger GmbH, Freiburg
                History
                Page count
                Tables: 2, References: 17, Pages: 4
                Categories
                Original Article · Originalarbeit

                surgical site infections,surveillance,kiss,gender,pathogens
                surgical site infections, surveillance, kiss, gender, pathogens

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