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      Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins: From Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems and Human Health to Anticarcinogenic Effects

      review-article
      Author(s): , *
      Publication date (Electronic):
      Journal: Toxins
      Publisher: MDPI
      Keywords: cyanobacteria, proliferation, cyanotoxins, toxicity, cancer

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          Abstract

          Cyanobacteria or blue-green algae are among the pioneer organisms of planet Earth. They developed an efficient photosynthetic capacity and played a significant role in the evolution of the early atmosphere. Essential for the development and evolution of species, they proliferate easily in aquatic environments, primarily due to human activities. Eutrophic environments are conducive to the appearance of cyanobacterial blooms that not only affect water quality, but also produce highly toxic metabolites. Poisoning and serious chronic effects in humans, such as cancer, have been described. On the other hand, many cyanobacterial genera have been studied for their toxins with anticancer potential in human cell lines, generating promising results for future research toward controlling human adenocarcinomas. This review presents the knowledge that has evolved on the topic of toxins produced by cyanobacteria, ranging from their negative impacts to their benefits.

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          Climate change: a catalyst for global expansion of harmful cyanobacterial blooms.

          Hans W. Paerl, Jef Huisman (2009)
          Cyanobacteria are the Earth's oldest known oxygen-evolving photosynthetic microorganisms, and they have had major impacts on shaping our current atmosphere and biosphere. Their long evolutionary history has enabled cyanobacteria to develop survival strategies and persist as important primary producers during numerous geochemical and climatic changes that have taken place on Earth during the past 3.5 billion years. Today, some cyanobacterial species form massive surface growths or 'blooms' that produce toxins, cause oxygen depletion and alter food webs, posing a major threat to drinking and irrigation water supplies, fishing and recreational use of surface waters worldwide. These harmful cyanobacteria can take advantage of anthropogenically induced nutrient over-enrichment (eutrophication), and hydrologic modifications (water withdrawal, reservoir construction). Here, we review recent studies revealing that regional and global climatic change may benefit various species of harmful cyanobacteria by increasing their growth rates, dominance, persistence, geographic distributions and activity. Future climatic change scenarios predict rising temperatures, enhanced vertical stratification of aquatic ecosystems, and alterations in seasonal and interannual weather patterns (including droughts, storms, floods); these changes all favour harmful cyanobacterial blooms in eutrophic waters. Therefore, current mitigation and water management strategies, which are largely based on nutrient input and hydrologic controls, must also accommodate the environmental effects of global warming. © 2009 Society for Applied Microbiology and Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
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            On the Chemistry, Toxicology and Genetics of the Cyanobacterial Toxins, Microcystin, Nodularin, Saxitoxin and Cylindrospermopsin

            Leanne Pearson, Troco Mihali, Michelle Moffitt … (2010)
            The cyanobacteria or “blue-green algae”, as they are commonly termed, comprise a diverse group of oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria that inhabit a wide range of aquatic and terrestrial environments, and display incredible morphological diversity. Many aquatic, bloom-forming species of cyanobacteria are capable of producing biologically active secondary metabolites, which are highly toxic to humans and other animals. From a toxicological viewpoint, the cyanotoxins span four major classes: the neurotoxins, hepatotoxins, cytotoxins, and dermatoxins (irritant toxins). However, structurally they are quite diverse. Over the past decade, the biosynthesis pathways of the four major cyanotoxins: microcystin, nodularin, saxitoxin and cylindrospermopsin, have been genetically and biochemically elucidated. This review provides an overview of these biosynthesis pathways and additionally summarizes the chemistry and toxicology of these remarkable secondary metabolites.
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              Ecotoxicological effects of selected cyanobacterial secondary metabolites: a short review.

              C. Wiegand, S Pflugmacher (2005)
              Cyanobacteria are one of the most diverse groups of gram-negative photosynthetic prokaryotes. Many of them are able to produce a wide range of toxic secondary metabolites. These cyanobacterial toxins can be classified in five different groups: hepatotoxins, neurotoxins, cytotoxins, dermatotoxins, and irritant toxins (lipopolysaccharides). Cyanobacterial blooms are hazardous due to this production of secondary metabolites and endotoxins, which could be toxic to animals and plants. Many of the freshwater cyanobacterial blooms include species of the toxigenic genera Microcystis, Anabaena, or Plankthotrix. These compounds differ in mechanisms of uptake, affected organs, and molecular mode of action. In this review, the main focus is the aquatic environment and the effects of these toxins to the organisms living there. Some basic toxic mechanisms will be discussed in comparison to the mammalian system.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Toxins (Basel)
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Toxins (Basel)
                Journal ID (publisher-id): toxins
                Title: Toxins
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2072-6651
                Publication date (Electronic): 23 October 2013
                Publication date Collection: October 2013
                Volume: 5
                Issue: 10
                Pages: 1896-1917
                Affiliations
                Universitary Center of Brasilia—UniCEUB—SEPN 707/907, Asa Norte, Brasília, CEP 70790-075, Brasília, Brazil; E-Mail: gilianezanchett@ 123456gmail.com
                Author notes
                [* ] Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: eduardo.cyrino@ 123456uniceub.br ; Tel.: +55-61-3388-9894.
                Article
                Publisher ID: toxins-05-01896
                DOI: 10.3390/toxins5101896
                PMC ID: 3813918
                PubMed ID: 24152991
                SO-VID: 284bfd99-7cac-42c1-b1fd-15f8c97b3b86
                Copyright © © 2013 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
                License:

                This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).

                History
                Date received : 11 August 2013
                Date revision received : 15 October 2013
                Date accepted : 17 October 2013
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Molecular medicine
                Keywords: cyanobacteria,proliferation,cyanotoxins,toxicity,cancer
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Molecular medicine
                Keywords: cyanobacteria, proliferation, cyanotoxins, toxicity, cancer

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