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      Antibacterial activity of medicinal plants against ESKAPE: An update

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          Abstract

          Antibiotic resistance has emerged as a threat to global health, food security, and development today. Antibiotic resistance can occur naturally but mainly due to misuse or overuse of antibiotics, which results in recalcitrant infections and Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) among bacterial pathogens.

          These mainly include the MDR strains (multi-drug resistant) of ESKAPE ( Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter species). These bacterial pathogens have the potential to “escape” antibiotics and other traditional therapies. These bacterial pathogens are responsible for the major cases of Hospital-Acquired Infections (HAI) globally. ESKAPE Pathogens have been placed in the list of 12 bacteria by World Health Organisation (WHO), against which development of new antibiotics is vital. It not only results in prolonged hospital stays but also higher medical costs and higher mortality. Therefore, new antimicrobials need to be developed to battle the rapidly evolving pathogens. Plants are known to synthesize an array of secondary metabolites referred as phytochemicals that have disease prevention properties. Potential efficacy and minimum to no side effects are the key advantages of plant-derived products, making them suitable choices for medical treatments. Hence, this review attempts to highlight and discuss the application of plant-derived compounds and extracts against ESKAPE Pathogens.

          Abstract

          Antimicrobial resistance; ESKAPE; Traditional medicine; Hospital acquired infection; Phytochemicals

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          Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: an international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance.

          A-P Magiorakos, A. Srinivasan, R.B. Carey … (2012)
          Many different definitions for multidrug-resistant (MDR), extensively drug-resistant (XDR) and pandrug-resistant (PDR) bacteria are being used in the medical literature to characterize the different patterns of resistance found in healthcare-associated, antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. A group of international experts came together through a joint initiative by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), to create a standardized international terminology with which to describe acquired resistance profiles in Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus spp., Enterobacteriaceae (other than Salmonella and Shigella), Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter spp., all bacteria often responsible for healthcare-associated infections and prone to multidrug resistance. Epidemiologically significant antimicrobial categories were constructed for each bacterium. Lists of antimicrobial categories proposed for antimicrobial susceptibility testing were created using documents and breakpoints from the Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI), the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA). MDR was defined as acquired non-susceptibility to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobial categories, XDR was defined as non-susceptibility to at least one agent in all but two or fewer antimicrobial categories (i.e. bacterial isolates remain susceptible to only one or two categories) and PDR was defined as non-susceptibility to all agents in all antimicrobial categories. To ensure correct application of these definitions, bacterial isolates should be tested against all or nearly all of the antimicrobial agents within the antimicrobial categories and selective reporting and suppression of results should be avoided. © 2011 European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. No claim to original US government works.
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            Discovery, research, and development of new antibiotics: the WHO priority list of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and tuberculosis

            Lawrence D. Kerr, Souha Kanj, Timothy Jinks … (2018)
            The spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria poses a substantial threat to morbidity and mortality worldwide. Due to its large public health and societal implications, multidrug-resistant tuberculosis has been long regarded by WHO as a global priority for investment in new drugs. In 2016, WHO was requested by member states to create a priority list of other antibiotic-resistant bacteria to support research and development of effective drugs.
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              Staphylococcus aureus infections: epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and management.

              Steven Y C Tong, Joshua Davis, Emily Eichenberger … (2015)
              Staphylococcus aureus is a major human pathogen that causes a wide range of clinical infections. It is a leading cause of bacteremia and infective endocarditis as well as osteoarticular, skin and soft tissue, pleuropulmonary, and device-related infections. This review comprehensively covers the epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and management of each of these clinical entities. The past 2 decades have witnessed two clear shifts in the epidemiology of S. aureus infections: first, a growing number of health care-associated infections, particularly seen in infective endocarditis and prosthetic device infections, and second, an epidemic of community-associated skin and soft tissue infections driven by strains with certain virulence factors and resistance to β-lactam antibiotics. In reviewing the literature to support management strategies for these clinical manifestations, we also highlight the paucity of high-quality evidence for many key clinical questions.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Nidhi S. Chandra
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Heliyon
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Heliyon
                Title: Heliyon
                Publisher: Elsevier
                ISSN (Electronic): 2405-8440
                Publication date PMC-release: 20 February 2021
                Publication date Collection: February 2021
                Publication date (Electronic): 20 February 2021
                Volume: 7
                Issue: 2
                Electronic Location Identifier: e06310
                Affiliations
                [a ]Department of Microbiology, Ram Lal Anand College, University of Delhi, Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi 110021, India
                [b ]Immunobiology Group, International Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi 110067, India
                Author notes
                [∗ ]Corresponding author. drnidhischandra@ 123456gmail.com
                Article
                Publisher Item ID: S2405-8440(21)00415-1 Publisher ID: e06310
                DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06310
                PMC ID: 7920328
                PubMed ID: 33718642
                SO-VID: 25e41081-07a4-478a-a3d3-1ba1e637f470
                Copyright © © 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
                License:

                This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 4 September 2020
                Date revision received : 28 November 2020
                Date accepted : 15 February 2021
                Categories
                Subject: Review Article

                Keywords: antimicrobial resistance,eskape,traditional medicine,hospital acquired infection,phytochemicals
                Data availability:
                Keywords: antimicrobial resistance, eskape, traditional medicine, hospital acquired infection, phytochemicals

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