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      A review on detection of heavy metal ions in water – An electrochemical approach

      , , ,
      Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical
      Elsevier BV

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          Mechanisms of Nanoparticle-Induced Oxidative Stress and Toxicity

          The rapidly emerging field of nanotechnology has offered innovative discoveries in the medical, industrial, and consumer sectors. The unique physicochemical and electrical properties of engineered nanoparticles (NP) make them highly desirable in a variety of applications. However, these novel properties of NP are fraught with concerns for environmental and occupational exposure. Changes in structural and physicochemical properties of NP can lead to changes in biological activities including ROS generation, one of the most frequently reported NP-associated toxicities. Oxidative stress induced by engineered NP is due to acellular factors such as particle surface, size, composition, and presence of metals, while cellular responses such as mitochondrial respiration, NP-cell interaction, and immune cell activation are responsible for ROS-mediated damage. NP-induced oxidative stress responses are torch bearers for further pathophysiological effects including genotoxicity, inflammation, and fibrosis as demonstrated by activation of associated cell signaling pathways. Since oxidative stress is a key determinant of NP-induced injury, it is necessary to characterize the ROS response resulting from NP. Through physicochemical characterization and understanding of the multiple signaling cascades activated by NP-induced ROS, a systemic toxicity screen with oxidative stress as a predictive model for NP-induced injury can be developed.
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            Toxic metals and oxidative stress part I: mechanisms involved in metal-induced oxidative damage.

            Toxic metals (lead, cadmium, mercury and arsenic) are widely found in our environment. Humans are exposed to these metals from numerous sources, including contaminated air, water, soil and food. Recent studies indicate that transition metals act as catalysts in the oxidative reactions of biological macromolecules therefore the toxicities associated with these metals might be due to oxidative tissue damage. Redox-active metals, such as iron, copper and chromium, undergo redox cycling whereas redox-inactive metals, such as lead, cadmium, mercury and others deplete cells' major antioxidants, particularly thiol-containing antioxidants and enzymes. Either redox-active or redox-inactive metals may cause an increase in production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as hydroxyl radical (HO.), superoxide radical (O2.-) or hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Enhanced generation of ROS can overwhelm cells' intrinsic antioxidant defenses, and result in a condition known as "oxidative stress". Cells under oxidative stress display various dysfunctions due to lesions caused by ROS to lipids, proteins and DNA. Consequently, it is suggested that metal-induced oxidative stress in cells can be partially responsible for the toxic effects of heavy metals. Several studies are underway to determine the effect of antioxidant supplementation following heavy metal exposure. Data suggest that antioxidants may play an important role in abating some hazards of heavy metals. In order to prove the importance of using antioxidants in heavy metal poisoning, pertinent biochemical mechanisms for metal-induced oxidative stress should be reviewed.
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              Electrochemical DNA sensors.

              Electrochemistry-based sensors offer sensitivity, selectivity and low cost for the detection of selected DNA sequences or mutated genes associated with human disease. DNA-based electrochemical sensors exploit a range of different chemistries, but all take advantage of nanoscale interactions between the target in solution, the recognition layer and a solid electrode surface. Numerous approaches to electrochemical detection have been developed, including direct electrochemistry of DNA, electrochemistry at polymer-modified electrodes, electrochemistry of DNA-specific redox reporters, electrochemical amplifications with nanoparticles, and electrochemical devices based on DNA-mediated charge transport chemistry.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical
                Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical
                Elsevier BV
                09254005
                July 2015
                July 2015
                : 213
                :
                : 515-533
                Article
                10.1016/j.snb.2015.02.122
                21cc467a-5a89-4e0e-917f-83af6bcebb73
                © 2015
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