The Cerebrovascular-Chronic Kidney Disease Connection: Perspectives and Mechanisms

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Abstract

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is an independent risk factor for the development of cerebrovascular disease, particularly small vessel disease which can manifest in a variety of phenotypes ranging from lacunes to microbleeds. Small vessel disease likely contributes to cognitive dysfunction in the CKD population. Non-traditional risk factors for vascular injury in uremia include loss of calcification inhibitors, hyperphosphatemia, increased blood pressure variability, elastinolysis, platelet dysfunction, and chronic inflammation. In this review, we discuss the putative pathways by which these mechanisms may promote cerebrovascular disease and thus increase risk of future stroke in CKD patients.

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Klotho deficiency causes vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease.

Ming Hu, Mingjun Shi, Jianning Zhang … (2011)

Soft-tissue calcification is a prominent feature in both chronic kidney disease (CKD) and experimental Klotho deficiency, but whether Klotho deficiency is responsible for the calcification in CKD is unknown. Here, wild-type mice with CKD had very low renal, plasma, and urinary levels of Klotho. In humans, we observed a graded reduction in urinary Klotho starting at an early stage of CKD and progressing with loss of renal function. Despite induction of CKD, transgenic mice that overexpressed Klotho had preserved levels of Klotho, enhanced phosphaturia, better renal function, and much less calcification compared with wild-type mice with CKD. Conversely, Klotho-haploinsufficient mice with CKD had undetectable levels of Klotho, worse renal function, and severe calcification. The beneficial effect of Klotho on vascular calcification was a result of more than its effect on renal function and phosphatemia, suggesting a direct effect of Klotho on the vasculature. In vitro, Klotho suppressed Na(+)-dependent uptake of phosphate and mineralization induced by high phosphate and preserved differentiation in vascular smooth muscle cells. In summary, Klotho is an early biomarker for CKD, and Klotho deficiency contributes to soft-tissue calcification in CKD. Klotho ameliorates vascular calcification by enhancing phosphaturia, preserving glomerular filtration, and directly inhibiting phosphate uptake by vascular smooth muscle. Replacement of Klotho may have therapeutic potential for CKD.

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Phosphate regulation of vascular smooth muscle cell calcification.

S Jono, M McKee, C Murry … (2000)

Vascular calcification is a common finding in atherosclerosis and a serious problem in diabetic and uremic patients. Because of the correlation of hyperphosphatemia and vascular calcification, the ability of extracellular inorganic phosphate levels to regulate human aortic smooth muscle cell (HSMC) culture mineralization in vitro was examined. HSMCs cultured in media containing normal physiological levels of inorganic phosphate (1.4 mmol/L) did not mineralize. In contrast, HSMCs cultured in media containing phosphate levels comparable to those seen in hyperphosphatemic individuals (>1.4 mmol/L) showed dose-dependent increases in mineral deposition. Mechanistic studies revealed that elevated phosphate treatment of HSMCs also enhanced the expression of the osteoblastic differentiation markers osteocalcin and Cbfa-1. The effects of elevated phosphate on HSMCs were mediated by a sodium-dependent phosphate cotransporter (NPC), as indicated by the ability of the specific NPC inhibitor phosphonoformic acid, to dose dependently inhibit phosphate-induced calcium deposition as well as osteocalcin and Cbfa-1 gene expression. With the use of polymerase chain reaction and Northern blot analyses, the NPC in HSMCs was identified as Pit-1 (Glvr-1), a member of the novel type III NPCs. These data suggest that elevated phosphate may directly stimulate HSMCs to undergo phenotypic changes that predispose to calcification and offer a novel explanation of the phenomenon of vascular calcification under hyperphosphatemic conditions. The full text of this article is available at http://www.circresaha.org.

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Hemodialysis-induced cardiac injury: determinants and associated outcomes.

James O. Burton, Helen Jefferies, Nicholas M. Selby … (2009)

Hemodialysis (HD)-induced myocardial stunning driven by ischemia is a recognized complication of HD, which can be ameliorated by HD techniques that improve hemodynamics. In nondialysis patients, repeated ischemia leads to chronic reduction in left ventricular (LV) function. HD may initiate and drive the same process. In this study, we examined the prevalence and associations of HD-induced repetitive myocardial injury and long-term effects on LV function and patient outcomes. Seventy prevalent HD patients were assessed for evidence of subclinical myocardial injury at baseline using serial echocardiography and followed up after 12 mo. Intradialytic blood pressure, hematologic and biochemical samples, and patient demographics were also collected at both time points. Sixty-four percent of patients had significant myocardial stunning during HD. Age, ultrafiltration volumes, intradialytic hypotension, and cardiac troponin-T (cTnT) levels were independent determinants associated with its presence. Myocardial stunning was associated with increased relative mortality at 12 mo (P = 0.019). Cox regression analysis showed increased hazard of death in patients with myocardial stunning and elevated cTnT than in patients with elevated cTnT alone (P < 0.02). Patients with myocardial stunning who survived 12 mo had significantly lower LV ejection fractions at rest and on HD (P < 0.001). HD-induced myocardial stunning is common, and may contribute to the development of heart failure and increased mortality in HD patients. Enhanced understanding of dialysis-induced cardiac injury may provide novel therapeutic targets to reduce currently excessive rates of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

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Author and article information

Contributors

Mark Fisher: +1 714 456 6856 , mfisher@uci.edu

Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): Transl Stroke Res

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Transl Stroke Res

Title: Translational Stroke Research

Publisher: Springer US (New York )

ISSN (Print): 1868-4483

ISSN (Electronic): 1868-601X

Publication date (Electronic): 14 September 2016

Publication date PMC-release: 14 September 2016

Publication date (Print): 2017

Volume: 8

Issue: 1

Pages: 67-76

Affiliations

[1 ]Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, University of California, Irvine, CA USA

[2 ]Department of Neurology, University of California, San Diego, CA USA

[3 ]Departments of Neurology, Anatomy & Neurobiology, and Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA USA

[4 ]Department of Neurology, UC Irvine Medical Center, 101 The City Drive South, Shanbrom Hall, Room 121, Orange, CA 92868 USA

Article

Publisher ID: 499

DOI: 10.1007/s12975-016-0499-x

PMC ID: 5241336

PubMed ID: 27628245

SO-VID: 217bef01-a3b0-478a-a850-a27227a293ec

License:

Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

History

Date received : 6 July 2016

Date revision received : 21 August 2016

Date accepted : 25 August 2016

Funding

Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100000065, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke;

Award ID: NS20989

Award Recipient : Mark Fisher

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ScienceOpen disciplines: Cardiovascular Medicine

Keywords: cerebrovascular disease,blood-brain barrier,chronic kidney disease,microalbuminemia,arteriolosclerosis,arterial medial calcification,hypertension

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ScienceOpen disciplines: Cardiovascular Medicine

Keywords: cerebrovascular disease, blood-brain barrier, chronic kidney disease, microalbuminemia, arteriolosclerosis, arterial medial calcification, hypertension

The Cerebrovascular-Chronic Kidney Disease Connection: Perspectives and Mechanisms

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Most cited references 92

Klotho deficiency causes vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease.

Phosphate regulation of vascular smooth muscle cell calcification.

Hemodialysis-induced cardiac injury: determinants and associated outcomes.

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