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      Acute Cognitively Engaging Exergame-Based Physical Activity Enhances Executive Functions in Adolescents

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          Abstract

          The study aimed to elucidate the influence of cognitive engagement comprised in an acute bout of exergame-based physical activity on executive functions (inhibition, cognitive flexibility) in adolescents. Therefore, the level of cognitive engagement and the intensity of physical activity were systematically varied across three experimental conditions. Sixty-five healthy male adolescents (13–16 years) were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (a) physical activity with high levels of cognitive engagement during active video gaming, (b) physical activity with low levels of cognitive engagement during active video gaming, (c) sedentary with low levels of cognitive engagement during passive video watching. Manipulation checks, including subjective and objective operationalizations of cognitive engagement, were applied. Executive functions were assessed before and after each condition using the D-KEFS design fluency test. Results showed that cognitive engagement, operationalized by subjects’ ratings and heart rate variability, differed between conditions. The physical activity condition with a high level of cognitive engagement resulted in significantly better performance in cognitive flexibility compared to conditions with low levels of cognitive engagement. Regarding benefits for executive functions in male adolescents, the results indicate that acute physical activity with high cognitive engagement could be more efficient than physical activity of the same intensity with low cognitive engagement. Even though further evidence is needed, these results extend previous research and suggest a methodological approach for measuring cognitive engagement.

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          Executive Functions

          Adele Diamond (2013)
          Executive functions (EFs) make possible mentally playing with ideas; taking the time to think before acting; meeting novel, unanticipated challenges; resisting temptations; and staying focused. Core EFs are inhibition [response inhibition (self-control—resisting temptations and resisting acting impulsively) and interference control (selective attention and cognitive inhibition)], working memory, and cognitive flexibility (including creatively thinking “outside the box,” seeing anything from different perspectives, and quickly and flexibly adapting to changed circumstances). The developmental progression and representative measures of each are discussed. Controversies are addressed (e.g., the relation between EFs and fluid intelligence, self-regulation, executive attention, and effortful control, and the relation between working memory and inhibition and attention). The importance of social, emotional, and physical health for cognitive health is discussed because stress, lack of sleep, loneliness, or lack of exercise each impair EFs. That EFs are trainable and can be improved with practice is addressed, including diverse methods tried thus far.
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            Measuring emotion: the Self-Assessment Manikin and the Semantic Differential.

            M M Bradley, P J Lang (1994)
            The Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) is a non-verbal pictorial assessment technique that directly measures the pleasure, arousal, and dominance associated with a person's affective reaction to a wide variety of stimuli. In this experiment, we compare reports of affective experience obtained using SAM, which requires only three simple judgments, to the Semantic Differential scale devised by Mehrabian and Russell (An approach to environmental psychology, 1974) which requires 18 different ratings. Subjective reports were measured to a series of pictures that varied in both affective valence and intensity. Correlations across the two rating methods were high both for reports of experienced pleasure and felt arousal. Differences obtained in the dominance dimension of the two instruments suggest that SAM may better track the personal response to an affective stimulus. SAM is an inexpensive, easy method for quickly assessing reports of affective response in many contexts.
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              The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis.

              Y.K. Chang, J.D. Labban, J.I. Gapin … (2012)
              There is a substantial body of literature related to the effects of a single session of exercise on cognitive performance. The premise underlying this research is that physiological changes in response to exercise have implications for cognitive function. This literature has been reviewed both narratively and meta-analytically and, although the research findings are mixed, researchers have generally concluded that there is a small positive effect. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to provide an updated comprehensive analysis of the extant literature on acute exercise and cognitive performance and to explore the effects of moderators that have implications for mechanisms of the effects. Searches of electronic databases and examinations of reference lists from relevant studies resulted in 79 studies meeting inclusion criteria. Consistent with past findings, analyses indicated that the overall effect was positive and small (g=0.097 n=1034). Positive and small effects were also found in all three acute exercise paradigms: during exercise (g=0.101; 95% confidence interval [CI]; 0.041-0.160), immediately following exercise (g=0.108; 95% CI; 0.069-0.147), and after a delay (g=0.103; 95% CI; 0.035-0.170). Examination of potential moderators indicated that exercise duration, exercise intensity, type of cognitive performance assessed, and participant fitness were significant moderators. In conclusion, the effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance are generally small; however, larger effects are possible for particular cognitive outcomes and when specific exercise parameters are used. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Antonio Verdejo-García: Role: Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): PLoS One
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): PLoS ONE
                Journal ID (publisher-id): plos
                Journal ID (pmc): plosone
                Title: PLoS ONE
                Publisher: Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                ISSN (Electronic): 1932-6203
                Publication date (Electronic): 28 December 2016
                Publication date Collection: 2016
                Volume: 11
                Issue: 12
                Electronic Location Identifier: e0167501
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Institute of Sport Science, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
                [2 ]Department of Pediatric Neurology, Development and Rehabilitation, University Children’s Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
                University of Granada, SPAIN
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                • Conceptualization: VB MS.

                • Formal analysis: VB MS.

                • Funding acquisition: MS TH.

                • Investigation: VB.

                • Methodology: VB MS.

                • Project administration: VB.

                • Resources: VB MS TH NE.

                • Software: VB MS TH.

                • Supervision: MS.

                • Validation: VB MS.

                • Visualization: VB.

                • Writing – original draft: VB.

                • Writing – review & editing: VB MS TH NE.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9940-5635
                Article
                Publisher ID: PONE-D-16-28395
                DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167501
                PMC ID: 5193332
                PubMed ID: 28030542
                SO-VID: 216b6968-acdb-4eab-822a-cde83067b534
                Copyright © © 2016 Benzing et al
                License:

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                Date received : 10 August 2016
                Date accepted : 15 November 2016
                Page count
                Figures: 0, Tables: 3, Pages: 15
                Funding
                Funded by: Fondation Gaydoul
                Funded by: Swiss Cancer Research foundation
                This work was supported by the Fondation Gaydoul and the Swiss Cancer Research foundation.
                Categories
                Subject: Research Article
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Neuroscience
                Subject: Cognitive Science
                Subject: Cognition
                Subject: People and Places
                Subject: Population Groupings
                Subject: Age Groups
                Subject: Adolescents
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Biomechanics
                Subject: Biological Locomotion
                Subject: Running
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Physiology
                Subject: Biological Locomotion
                Subject: Running
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Physiology
                Subject: Biological Locomotion
                Subject: Running
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Public and Occupational Health
                Subject: Physical Activity
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Behavior
                Subject: Recreation
                Subject: Games
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Neuroscience
                Subject: Cognitive Science
                Subject: Cognitive Psychology
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Psychology
                Subject: Cognitive Psychology
                Subject: Social Sciences
                Subject: Psychology
                Subject: Cognitive Psychology
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Public and Occupational Health
                Subject: Physical Activity
                Subject: Physical Fitness
                Subject: Exercise
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Sports and Exercise Medicine
                Subject: Exercise
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Sports Science
                Subject: Sports and Exercise Medicine
                Subject: Exercise
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Cardiology
                Subject: Heart Rate
                Custom metadata
                Data Availability All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Uncategorized
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Uncategorized

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