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      Direct, indirect, and intangible costs after severe trauma up to occupational reintegration – an empirical analysis of 113 seriously injured patients

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          Abstract

          Aim: Although seriously injured patients account for a high medical as well as socioeconomic burden of disease in the German health care system, there are only very few data describing the costs that arise between the days of accident and occupational reintegration. With this study, a comprehensive cost model is developed that describes the direct, indirect and intangible costs of an accident and their relationship with socioeconomic background of the patients.

          Methods: This study included 113 patients who each had at least two injuries and a total Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) greater than or equal to five. We calculated the direct, indirect and intangible costs that arose between the day of the accident and occupational reintegration. Direct costs were the treatment costs at hospitals and rehabilitation centers. Indirect costs were calculated using the human capital approach on the basis of the work days lost due to injury, including sickness allowance benefits. Intangible costs were assessed using the Short Form Survey (SF-36) and represented in non-monetary form. Following univariate analysis, a bivariate analysis of the above costs and the patients’ sociodemographic and socioeconomic characteristics was performed.

          Results: At an average Injury Severity Score (ISS) of 19.2, the average direct cost per patient were €35,661. An average of 185.2 work days were lost, resulting in indirect costs of €17,205. The resulting total costs per patient were €50,431. A bivariate analysis showed that the costs for hospital treatment were 58% higher in patients who graduated from lower secondary school [Hauptschule] (ISS 19.5) than in patients with qualification for university admission [Abitur] (ISS 19.4).

          Conclusions: The direct costs of treating trauma patients at the hospital appear to be lower in patients with a higher level of education than in the comparison group with a lower educational level. Because of missing data, the calculated indirect costs can merely represent a general trend, so that the bivariate analysis can only be seen as a starting point for further studies.

          Translated abstract

          Zielsetzung: Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die Kosten, welche bei der Behandlung und Rehabilitation polytraumatisierter Patienten nach einem schweren Unfall entstehen, und zwar von der Aufnahme ins Akutkrankenhaus bis zur Wiederaufnahme der prätraumatisch ausgeübten oder posttraumatisch erlernten Arbeit. Dabei wird zwischen direkten, indirekten und intangiblen Kosten unterschieden.

          Methodik: In die Studie eingeschlossen wurden 113 Patienten mit mindestens zwei Verletzungen und einem Gesamt-AIS größer gleich fünf. Es wurden direkte, indirekte und intangible Kosten ermittelt, die zwischen dem Tag des Unfalls und der Wiedereingliederung in den Beruf entstehen. Die Behandlungskosten im Akutkrankenhaus und der Rehabilitationsklinik werden dabei als direkte Kosten bezeichnet. Als indirekte Kosten werden zum einen Krankengeldleistungen erfasst, zum anderen wird der Wertschöpfungsverlust durch den krankheitsbedingten Arbeitsausfall mittels Humankapitalansatz berechnet. Die intangiblen Kosten wurden in der vorliegenden Analyse mit dem SF-36 erfasst und in nicht monetärer Form dargestellt. Im Anschluss an einer univariaten Auswertung erfolgt ein bivariater Vergleich zwischen den genannten Kosten und den soziodemographischen sowie -ökonomischen Eigenschaften der Patienten.

          Ergebnisse: Bei einer Verletzungsschwere von im Mittel 19,2 Punkten nach ISS betragen die direkten Kosten pro Patient im Durchschnitt 35.661 €. Bei einer gemittelten Arbeitsausfallzeit von 185,2 Tagen entstehen indirekte Kosten in Höhe von 17.205 €. Somit ergeben sich Gesamtkosten von 50.431 € pro Patient. Eine bivariate Analyse ergab, dass die Kosten für die Behandlung im Akutkrankenhaus bei den Patienten mit Hauptschulabschluss (ISS 19,5) um 58% höher sind als bei Patienten mit Abitur (ISS 19,4).

          Fazit: Die direkten Kosten, welche bei der Behandlung traumatisierter Patienten im Akutkrankenhaus entstehen, scheinen bei Patienten mit höheren Bildungsgraden geringer auszufallen als in der Vergleichsgruppe mit niedrigerem Bildungsstand. Die aufgeführten indirekten Kosten sind aufgrund der fehlenden Datenlage nur als Tendenz zu betrachten, so dass der bivariate Vergleich nur ein erster Anhaltspunkt darstellen kann.

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          Most cited references75

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          Psychological predictors of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents.

          A prospective longitudinal study assessed 967 consecutive patients who attended an emergency clinic shortly after a motor vehicle accident, again at 3 months, and at 1 year. The prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was 23.1% at 3 months and 16.5% at 1 year. Chronic PTSD was related to some objective measures of trauma severity, perceived threat, and dissociation during the accident, to female gender, to previous emotional problems, and to litigation. Maintaining psychological factors, that is, negative interpretation of intrusions, rumination, thought suppression, and anger cognitions, enhanced the accuracy of the prediction. Negative interpretation of intrusions, persistent medical problems, and rumination at 3 months were the most important predictors of PTSD symptoms at 1 year. Rumination, anger cognitions, injury severity, and prior emotional problems identified cases of delayed onset.
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              Outcome after major trauma: 12-month and 18-month follow-up results from the Trauma Recovery Project.

              The importance of outcome after major injury has continued to gain attention in light of the ongoing development of sophisticated trauma care systems in the United States. The Trauma Recovery Project (TRP) is a large prospective epidemiologic study designed to examine multiple outcomes after major trauma in adults aged 18 years and older, including quality of life, functional outcome, and psychologic sequelae such as depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Patient outcomes were assessed at discharge and at 6, 12, and 18 months after discharge. The specific objectives of the present report are to describe functional outcomes at the 12-month and 18-month follow-ups in the TRP population and to examine the association of putative risk factors with functional outcome. Between December 1, 1993, and September 1, 1996, 1,048 eligible trauma patients triaged to four participating trauma center hospitals in the San Diego Regionalized Trauma System were enrolled in the TRP study. The admission criteria for patients were as follows: (1) age 18 years or older; (2) Glasgow Coma Scale score on admission of 12 or greater; and (3) length of stay greater than 24 hours. Functional outcome after trauma was measured before and after injury using the Quality of Well-Being (QWB) Scale, an index sensitive to the well end of the functioning continuum (0 = death, 1.000 = optimum functioning). Follow-up at 12 months after discharge was completed for 806 patients (79%), and follow-up at 18 months was completed for 780 patients (74%). Follow-up contact at any of the study time points (6, 12, or 18 months) was achieved for 926 (88%) patients. The mean age was 36 +/- 14.8 years, and 70% of the patients were male; 52% were white, 30% were Hispanic, and 18% were black or other. Less than 40% of study participants were married or living together. The mean Injury Severity Score was 13 +/- 8.5, with 85% blunt injuries and a mean length of stay of 7 +/- 9.2 days. QWB scores before injury reflected the norm for a healthy adult population (mean, 0.810 +/- 0.171). At the 12-month follow-up, there were very high levels of functional limitation (QWB mean score, 0.670 +/- 0.137). Only 18% of patients followed at 12 months had scores above 0.800, the norm for a healthy population. There was no improvement in functional limitation at the 18-month follow-up (QWB mean score, 0.678 +/- 0.130). The majority of patients (80%) at the 18-month follow-up continued to have QWB scores below the healthy norm of 0.800. Postinjury depression, PTSD, serious extremity injury, and intensive care unit days were significant independent predictors of 12-month and 18-month QWB outcome. This study demonstrates a prolonged and profound level of functional limitation after major trauma at 12-month and 18-month follow-up. This is the first report of long-term outcome based on the QWB Scale, a standardized quality-of-life measure, and provides new and provocative evidence that the magnitude of dysfunction after major injury has been underestimated. Postinjury depression, PTSD, serious extremity injury, and intensive care unit days are significantly associated with 12-month and 18-month QWB outcome.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Psychosoc Med
                Psychosoc Med
                GMS Psychosoc Med
                GMS Psycho-Social-Medicine
                German Medical Science GMS Publishing House
                1860-5214
                17 June 2013
                2013
                : 10
                : Doc02
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Institute for Medical Sociology, Health Services Research and Rehabilitation Science (IMVR), University of Cologne, Germany
                [2 ]Federal Center for Health Education (BZgA), Cologne, Germany
                [3 ]Faculty of Business Management and Social Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Osnabrück, Germany
                [4 ]Institute for Research in Operative Medicine, Private University of Witten/Herdecke, Cologne, Germany
                [5 ]Faculty of Applied Social Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Munich, Germany
                Author notes
                *To whom correspondence should be addressed: Benjamin Anders, Institute for Medical Sociology, Health Services Research and Rehabilitation Science (IMVR), University of Cologne, Eupener Strasse 129, 50933 Cologne, Germany, Phone: +49/(0)221-478-97141, Fax: +49/(0)221-478-97142, E-mail: benjamin.anders@ 123456netcologne.de
                Article
                psm000092 Doc02 urn:nbn:de:0183-psm0000929
                10.3205/psm000092
                3687242
                23798979
                1dda1472-528c-4ab0-990c-c415ff58f130
                Copyright © 2013 Anders et al.

                This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). You are free to copy, distribute and transmit the work, provided the original author and source are credited.

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                Categories
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                Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry
                direct costs,indirect costs,intangible costs,trauma,socio-economic status

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