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      The functional connectome in obsessive-compulsive disorder: resting-state mega-analysis and machine learning classification for the ENIGMA-OCD consortium

      research-article
      1 , 2 , , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 7 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 15 , 16 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 1 , 2 , 13 , 23 , 24 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 8 , 8 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 30 , 32 , 33 , 13 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 38 , 39 , 41 , 7 , 12 , 42 , 43 , 8 , 44 , 45 , 17 , 46 , 7 , 17 , 46 , 20 , 21 , 47 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 33 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 12 , 52 , 20 , 21 , 53 , 54 , 54 , 8 , 10 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 3 , 58 , 33 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 19 , 45 , 7 , 17 , 62 , 21 , 22 , 54 , 63 , 23 , 24 , 35 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 34 , 30 , 32 , 33 , 48 , 16 , 69 , 10 , 9 , 70 , 36 , 37 , 71 , 72 , 18 , 73 , 74 , 3 , 9 , 39 , 75 , 74 , 1 , 2 , 36 , 76 , 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 , 37 , 71 , 72 , ENIGMA-OCD Working Group, 34 , 77 , 36 , 37 , 71 , 1 , 2 ,
      Molecular Psychiatry
      Nature Publishing Group UK
      Neuroscience, Psychiatric disorders, Diagnostic markers

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          Abstract

          Current knowledge about functional connectivity in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is based on small-scale studies, limiting the generalizability of results. Moreover, the majority of studies have focused only on predefined regions or functional networks rather than connectivity throughout the entire brain. Here, we investigated differences in resting-state functional connectivity between OCD patients and healthy controls (HC) using mega-analysis of data from 1024 OCD patients and 1028 HC from 28 independent samples of the ENIGMA-OCD consortium. We assessed group differences in whole-brain functional connectivity at both the regional and network level, and investigated whether functional connectivity could serve as biomarker to identify patient status at the individual level using machine learning analysis. The mega-analyses revealed widespread abnormalities in functional connectivity in OCD, with global hypo-connectivity (Cohen’s d: -0.27 to -0.13) and few hyper-connections, mainly with the thalamus (Cohen’s d: 0.19 to 0.22). Most hypo-connections were located within the sensorimotor network and no fronto-striatal abnormalities were found. Overall, classification performances were poor, with area-under-the-receiver-operating-characteristic curve (AUC) scores ranging between 0.567 and 0.673, with better classification for medicated (AUC = 0.702) than unmedicated (AUC = 0.608) patients versus healthy controls. These findings provide partial support for existing pathophysiological models of OCD and highlight the important role of the sensorimotor network in OCD. However, resting-state connectivity does not so far provide an accurate biomarker for identifying patients at the individual level.

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          An automated labeling system for subdividing the human cerebral cortex on MRI scans into gyral based regions of interest.

          In this study, we have assessed the validity and reliability of an automated labeling system that we have developed for subdividing the human cerebral cortex on magnetic resonance images into gyral based regions of interest (ROIs). Using a dataset of 40 MRI scans we manually identified 34 cortical ROIs in each of the individual hemispheres. This information was then encoded in the form of an atlas that was utilized to automatically label ROIs. To examine the validity, as well as the intra- and inter-rater reliability of the automated system, we used both intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC), and a new method known as mean distance maps, to assess the degree of mismatch between the manual and the automated sets of ROIs. When compared with the manual ROIs, the automated ROIs were highly accurate, with an average ICC of 0.835 across all of the ROIs, and a mean distance error of less than 1 mm. Intra- and inter-rater comparisons yielded little to no difference between the sets of ROIs. These findings suggest that the automated method we have developed for subdividing the human cerebral cortex into standard gyral-based neuroanatomical regions is both anatomically valid and reliable. This method may be useful for both morphometric and functional studies of the cerebral cortex as well as for clinical investigations aimed at tracking the evolution of disease-induced changes over time, including clinical trials in which MRI-based measures are used to examine response to treatment.
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            Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex.

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              Functional connectivity in the motor cortex of resting human brain using echo-planar MRI.

              An MRI time course of 512 echo-planar images (EPI) in resting human brain obtained every 250 ms reveals fluctuations in signal intensity in each pixel that have a physiologic origin. Regions of the sensorimotor cortex that were activated secondary to hand movement were identified using functional MRI methodology (FMRI). Time courses of low frequency (< 0.1 Hz) fluctuations in resting brain were observed to have a high degree of temporal correlation (P < 10(-3)) within these regions and also with time courses in several other regions that can be associated with motor function. It is concluded that correlation of low frequency fluctuations, which may arise from fluctuations in blood oxygenation or flow, is a manifestation of functional connectivity of the brain.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                willembenjamin@gmail.com
                g.a.vanwingen@amsterdamumc.nl
                Journal
                Mol Psychiatry
                Mol Psychiatry
                Molecular Psychiatry
                Nature Publishing Group UK (London )
                1359-4184
                1476-5578
                2 May 2023
                2 May 2023
                2023
                : 28
                : 10
                : 4307-4319
                Affiliations
                [1 ]GRID grid.509540.d, ISNI 0000 0004 6880 3010, Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, ; Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
                [2 ]Amsterdam Neuroscience, ( https://ror.org/01x2d9f70) Amsterdam, The Netherlands
                [3 ]Department of Psychiatry, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, ( https://ror.org/028vxwa22) Kyoto, Japan
                [4 ]Department of Psychiatry, Bellvitge University Hospital, ( https://ror.org/00epner96) Barcelona, Spain
                [5 ]Department of Clinical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Barcelona, ( https://ror.org/021018s57) Barcelona, Spain
                [6 ]IDIBELL, Bellvitge University Hospital, ( https://ror.org/00epner96) Barcelona, Spain
                [7 ]CIBERSAM, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, ( https://ror.org/00ca2c886) Madrid, Spain
                [8 ]Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, ( https://ror.org/03v76x132) New Haven, CT USA
                [9 ]Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Technische Universität Dresden, ( https://ror.org/042aqky30) Dresden, Germany
                [10 ]Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health And Neurosciences (NIMHANS), ( https://ror.org/0405n5e57) Bangalore, India
                [11 ]Radiology Service, Diagnosis Image Center, Hospital Clinic de Barcelona, ( https://ror.org/02a2kzf50) Barcelona, Spain
                [12 ]GRID grid.10403.36, ISNI 0000000091771775, Magnetic Resonance Image Core Facility, , Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), ; Barcelona, Spain
                [13 ]Department of Psychiatry, University of Sao Paulo School of Medicine, ( https://ror.org/036rp1748) Sao Paulo, Brazil
                [14 ]Department of Methods and Techniques in Psychology, Pontifical Catholic University, ( https://ror.org/00sfmx060) Sao Paulo, Brazil
                [15 ]Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, ( https://ror.org/01gmqr298) Milano, Italy
                [16 ]GRID grid.18887.3e, ISNI 0000000417581884, Psychiatry & Clinical Psychobiology, Division of Neuroscience, , IRCCS Scientific Institute Ospedale San Raffaele, ; Milano, Italy
                [17 ]Bellvitge Biomedical Research Insitute-IDIBELL, Bellvitge University Hospital, ( https://ror.org/00epner96) Barcelona, Spain
                [18 ]Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital of Psychiatry, University of Zurich, ( https://ror.org/02crff812) Zurich, Switzerland
                [19 ]Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, ( https://ror.org/02crff812) Zurich, Switzerland
                [20 ]Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, ( https://ror.org/037wpkx04) Braga, Portugal
                [21 ]GRID grid.10328.38, ISNI 0000 0001 2159 175X, ICVS/3B’s, , PT Government Associate Laboratory, ; Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
                [22 ]GRID grid.512329.e, Clinical Academic Center—Braga, ; Braga, Portugal
                [23 ]Department of Psychiatry, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, ( https://ror.org/0190ak572) New York, NY USA
                [24 ]Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, ( https://ror.org/01s434164) Orangeburg, NY USA
                [25 ]Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, ( https://ror.org/03dbr7087) Toronto, ON Canada
                [26 ]General Adult Psychiatry & Health Systems, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, ( https://ror.org/03e71c577) Toronto, ON Canada
                [27 ]Women’s and Children’s Health, Karolinska Institutet, ( https://ror.org/056d84691) Stockholm, Sweden
                [28 ]GRID grid.266100.3, ISNI 0000 0001 2107 4242, University of California, ; San Diego, CA USA
                [29 ]Molde Hospital, Møre og Romsdal Hospital Trust, ( https://ror.org/00k5vcj72) Molde, Norway
                [30 ]Bergen Center for Brain Plasticity, Haukeland University Hospital, ( https://ror.org/03np4e098) Bergen, Norway
                [31 ]Department of Mental Health, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, ( https://ror.org/05xg72x27) Trondheim, Norway
                [32 ]GRID grid.7914.b, ISNI 0000 0004 1936 7443, Center for Crisis Psychology, , University of Bergen, ; Bergen, Norway
                [33 ]Research Center for Child Mental Development, Chiba University, ( https://ror.org/01hjzeq58) Chiba, Japan
                [34 ]Imaging Genetics Center, Stevens Neuroimaging & Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, ( https://ror.org/03taz7m60) Los Angeles, CA USA
                [35 ]Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, ( https://ror.org/03rmrcq20) Vancouver, BC Canada
                [36 ]Amsterdam UMC, location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, ( https://ror.org/05grdyy37) De Boelelaan 1117, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
                [37 ]Amsterdam UMC, location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, ( https://ror.org/05grdyy37) De Boelelaan 1117, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
                [38 ]Department of Neuropsychiatry, Seoul National University Hospital, ( https://ror.org/01z4nnt86) Seoul, Republic of Korea
                [39 ]Department of Psychiatry, Seoul National University College of Medicine, ( https://ror.org/04h9pn542) Seoul, Republic of Korea
                [40 ]GRID grid.6936.a, ISNI 0000000123222966, Department of Neuroradiology, School of Medicine, Klinikum Rechts der Isar, , Technical University of Munich, ; Munich, Germany
                [41 ]Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Seoul National University College of Natural Sciences, ( https://ror.org/04h9pn542) Seoul, Republic of Korea
                [42 ]Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, ( https://ror.org/02a2kzf50) Barcelona, Spain
                [43 ]Department of Medicine, University of Barcelona, ( https://ror.org/021018s57) Barcelona, Spain
                [44 ]SA MRC Unit on Risk and Resilience in Mental Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, Stellenbosch University, ( https://ror.org/05bk57929) Stellenbosch, South Africa
                [45 ]Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, ( https://ror.org/01esghr10) New York, NY USA
                [46 ]Department of Clinical Sciences, University of Barcelona, ( https://ror.org/021018s57) Barcelona, Spain
                [47 ]Psychological Neuroscience Lab, CIPsi, School of Psychology, University of Minho, ( https://ror.org/037wpkx04) Braga, Portugal
                [48 ]Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, ( https://ror.org/00p4k0j84) Fukuoka-shi, Japan
                [49 ]National Institute of Mental Health And Neurosciences (NIMHANS), ( https://ror.org/0405n5e57) Bangalore, India
                [50 ]GVAMHS, Goulburn Valley Health, ( https://ror.org/0239ann44) Shepparton, VIC Australia
                [51 ]Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California at Los Angeles, ( https://ror.org/046rm7j60) Los Angeles, CA USA
                [52 ]GRID grid.19006.3e, ISNI 0000 0000 9632 6718, Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, , UCLA Semel Institute for Neuroscience, ; Los Angeles, CA USA
                [53 ]Departamento de Psicología Básica, Clínica y Psicobiología, Universitat Jaume I, ( https://ror.org/02ws1xc11) Castelló de la Plana, Spain
                [54 ]GRID grid.417778.a, ISNI 0000 0001 0692 3437, Laboratory of Neuropsychiatry, Department of Clinical and Behavioral Neurology, , IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, ; Rome, Italy
                [55 ]Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Neuroradiology, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, ( https://ror.org/02kkvpp62) Munich, Germany
                [56 ]TUM-Neuroimaging Center (TUM-NIC) of Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, ( https://ror.org/02kkvpp62) Munich, Germany
                [57 ]GRID grid.5252.0, ISNI 0000 0004 1936 973X, Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences (GSN), , Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, ; Munich, Germany
                [58 ]GRID grid.418163.9, ISNI 0000 0001 2291 1583, ATR Brain Information Communication Research Laboratory Group, ; Kyoto, Japan
                [59 ]United Graduate School of Child Development, Osaka University, Kanazawa University, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Chiba University and University of Fukui, Fukui, Japan
                [60 ]Department of Cognitive Behavioral Physiology Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, ( https://ror.org/01hjzeq58) Chiba, Japan
                [61 ]Department of Integrative Medicine, National Institute of Mental Health And Neurosciences (NIMHANS), ( https://ror.org/0405n5e57) Bangalore, India
                [62 ]Department of Social Psychology and Quantitative Psychology, Universitat de Barcelona-UB, ( https://ror.org/021018s57) Barcelona, Spain
                [63 ]Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, ( https://ror.org/02pttbw34) Houston, TX USA
                [64 ]British Columbia Children’s Hospital Research Institute, ( https://ror.org/04n901w50) Vancouver, BC Canada
                [65 ]British Columbia Mental Health and Substance Use Services Research Institute, Vancouver, BC Canada
                [66 ]Department of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, ( https://ror.org/04a9tmd77) New York, NY USA
                [67 ]GRID grid.274295.f, ISNI 0000 0004 0420 1184, Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), , James J. Peters VA Medical Center, ; Bronx, NY USA
                [68 ]Department of Psychiatry, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, ( https://ror.org/00ka6rp58) Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province China
                [69 ]Department of Developmental Psychology, University of Amsterdam, ( https://ror.org/04dkp9463) Amsterdam, The Netherlands
                [70 ]Department of Psychology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, MSB Medical School Berlin, ( https://ror.org/001vjqx13) Berlin, Germany
                [71 ]Amsterdam Neuroscience, Compulsivity, Impulsivity & Attention program, ( https://ror.org/01x2d9f70) Amsterdam, The Netherlands
                [72 ]Amsterdam Neuroscience, Brain Imaging program, ( https://ror.org/01x2d9f70) Amsterdam, The Netherlands
                [73 ]Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences CCM, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, ( https://ror.org/001w7jn25) Berlin, Germany
                [74 ]GRID grid.16821.3c, ISNI 0000 0004 0368 8293, Shanghai Mental Health Center, , Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, ; Shanghai Jiao, China
                [75 ]Yeongeon Student Support Center, Seoul National University College of Medicine, ( https://ror.org/04h9pn542) Seoul, Republic of Korea
                [76 ]Amsterdam Neuroscience, Mood Anxiety Psychosis Stress Sleep, ( https://ror.org/01x2d9f70) Amsterdam, The Netherlands
                [77 ]SA MRC Unit on Risk and Resilience in Mental Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, Neuroscience Institute, University of Cape Town, ( https://ror.org/03p74gp79) Cape Town, South Africa
                [78 ]Center for Research on Counseling and Support Services, Tokyo University, ( https://ror.org/01etn5q21) Tokyo, Japan
                [79 ]Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, University of Mississippi, ( https://ror.org/02teq1165) Oxford, MS USA
                [80 ]Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Neuroscience Institute, University of Cape Town, ( https://ror.org/03p74gp79) Cape Town, South Africa
                [81 ]Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Bergen, ( https://ror.org/03zga2b32) Bergen, Norway
                [82 ]GRID grid.19006.3e, ISNI 0000 0000 9632 6718, UCLA Brain Research Institute, ; Los Angeles, CA USA
                [83 ]Center of Mathematics, Computing and Cognition, Universidade Federal do ABC, ( https://ror.org/028kg9j04) Santo Andre, Brazil
                [84 ]Big Data Sector, Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, ( https://ror.org/04cwrbc27) Sao Paulo, Brazil
                [85 ]Department of Radiology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, ( https://ror.org/028vxwa22) Kyoto, Japan
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0672-8903
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8348-0801
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6482-1316
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1347-8241
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4949-856X
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1468-7862
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3191-3844
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1127-3835
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3844-3061
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5107-4945
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1605-2828
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8668-0817
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4664-8016
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1060-1462
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8425-5750
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9393-1212
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4766-3704
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2439-6305
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4036-0284
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6231-6524
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3880-3258
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4195-7194
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3566-5494
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2117-9321
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6867-0727
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6741-9338
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4574-6597
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8755-5126
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0994-6383
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3796-1377
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0949-898X
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3239-6957
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4319-5314
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6753-1370
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5531-2410
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2370-9584
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7218-7810
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9804-7653
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3076-5891
                Article
                2077
                10.1038/s41380-023-02077-0
                10827654
                37131072
                1d54ceaa-79d4-42ef-89df-7aa81089ebe9
                © The Author(s) 2023, corrected publication 2023

                Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

                History
                : 17 August 2022
                : 11 April 2023
                : 14 April 2023
                Funding
                Funded by: Funding from Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (KAKENHI Grant No. 18K15523)
                Funded by: Carlos III Health Institute PI18/00856
                Funded by: NIMH: 5R01MH116038
                Funded by: Sara Bertolin was supported by Instituto de Salud Carlos III through the grant CM21/00278 (Co-funded by European Social Fund. ESF investing in your future).
                Funded by: Hartmann Müller Foundation (no. 1460, principal investigator: S.Brem)
                Funded by: NIHM: R01MH085900, R01MH121520
                Funded by: NIH: K23 MH115206 & IOCDF Annual Research Award
                Funded by: AMED Brain/MINDS Beyond program Grant No. JP22dm0307002, JSPS KAKENHI Grants No. 22H01090, 21K03084, 19K03309, 16K04344
                Funded by: NIH: R01MH117601, R01AG059874, P41EB015922, R01MH126213, R01MH121246
                Funded by: Michael Smith Health Research BC
                Funded by: the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaf (KO 3744/11-1)
                Funded by: This work was supported by the Medical Research Council of South Africa (SAMRC), and the National Research Foundation of South Africa (Christine Lochner), and we acknowledge the contribution of our research assistants.
                Funded by: NIMH: R21MH093889, R21MH101441 and R01MH104648
                Funded by: IM-Z was supported by a PFIS grant (FI17/00294) from the Carlos III Health Institute
                Funded by: This work was supported by National funds, through the Foundation for Science and Technology (project UIDB/50026/2020 and UIDP/50026/2020); by the Norte Portugal Regional Operational Programme (NORTE 2020) under the PORTUGAL 2020 Partnership Agreement, through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) (projects NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000013 and NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000023), and by the FLAD Science Award Mental Health 2021.
                Funded by: JSPS KAKENHI (C)21K07547, 22K07598 and 22K15766
                Funded by: Government of India grants from Department of Science and Technology (DST INSPIRE faculty grant -IFA12-LSBM-26) & Department of Biotechnology (BT/06/IYBA/2012)
                Funded by: NIMH: R01MH081864
                Funded by: MPP was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Universities, with funds from the European Union - NextGenerationEU (MAZ/2021/11).
                Funded by: Italian Ministry of Health, Ricerca Corrente 2022, 2023
                Funded by: NIMH: K24MH121571
                Funded by: Government of India grants to: Prof. Reddy [(SR/S0/HS/0016/2011) & (BT/PR13334/Med/30/259/2009)], Dr. Janardhanan Narayanaswamy (DST INSPIRE faculty grant -IFA12-LSBM-26) & (BT/06/IYBA/2012) and the Wellcome-DBT India Alliance grant to Dr. Ganesan Venkatasubramanian (500236/Z/11/Z)
                Funded by: the Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development: JP22dm0307008
                Funded by: DBT-Wellcome Trust India Alliance Early Career Fellowship grant (IA/CPHE/18/1/503956)
                Funded by: NIMH: R21MH093889 and R01MH104648
                Funded by: Grant #PI19/01171 from the Carlos III Health Institute, and 2017SGR 1247 from AGAUR-Generalitat de Catalunya.
                Funded by: Italian Ministry of Health grant RC19-20-21-22/A
                Funded by: Grants R01MH126981, R01MH111794, and R33MH107589 from the National Institute of Mental Health/National Institute of Health awarded to ERS.
                Funded by: National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 81871057, 82171495), and Key Technologies Research and Development Program of China (Nos.2022YFE0103700)
                Funded by: Helse Vest Health Authority (Grant ID 911754 and 911880)
                Funded by: JSPS KAKENHI (C) JP21K07547, 22K07598 and 22K15766.
                Funded by: Ganesan Venkatasubramanian acknowledges the support of Department of Biotechnology (DBT) - Wellcome Trust India Alliance CRC grant (IA/CRC/19/1/610005) & senior fellowship grant (500236/Z/11/Z)
                Funded by: Supported by an grant from Amsterdam Neuroscience CIA-2019-03-A
                Funded by: Swiss National Science Foundation (no. 320030_130237, principal investigator: S.Walitza)
                Funded by: The National Natural Science Foundation of China (82071518)
                Funded by: Else Kröner Fresenius Stiftung (2017_A101)
                Funded by: ENIGMA World Aging Center, NIA Award No. R01AG058854; ENIGMA Parkinson&apos;s Initiative: A Global Initiative for Parkinson&apos;s Disease, NINDS award RO1NS107513
                Funded by: the Obsessive-Compulsive Foundation to Dan J. Stein
                Funded by: Dutch Organization for Scientific Research (NWO/ZonMW) VENI grant (916-86-038) and Brain & Behavior Research Foundation (NARSAD grant), Netherlands Brain Foundation (2010(1)-50)
                Funded by: Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO/ZonMW Vidi Grant No. 165.610.002, 016.156.318, and 917.15.318 G.A. van Wingen)
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                © Springer Nature Limited 2023

                Molecular medicine
                neuroscience,psychiatric disorders,diagnostic markers
                Molecular medicine
                neuroscience, psychiatric disorders, diagnostic markers

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