Bioavailability and Ecotoxicity of Lead in Soil: Implications for Setting Ecological Soil Quality Standards

Abstract

Ecological soil quality standards for lead (Pb) that account for soil Pb bioavailability have not yet been derived. We derived such standards based on specific studies of the long‐term bioavailability and toxicity of Pb to soil organisms and a compilation of field data on the bioaccumulation of Pb in earthworms. Toxicity thresholds of Pb to plants, invertebrates, or microorganisms vary over more than 2 orders of magnitude, and the lowest values overlap with the range in natural Pb background concentrations in soil. Soils freshly spiked with Pb ²⁺ salts exhibit higher Pb bioavailability and lower toxic thresholds than long‐term aged and leached equivalents. Comparative toxicity tests on leaching and aging effects suggest using a soil Pb threshold that is 4.0 higher, to correct thresholds of freshly spiked soils. Toxicity to plants and earthworms, and microbial N‐transformation and bioaccumulation of Pb in earthworms increase with decreasing effective cation exchange capacity (eCEC) of the soil, and models were derived to normalize data for variation of the eCEC among soils. Suggested ecological quality standards for soil expressed as total soil Pb concentration are lower for Pb toxicity to wildlife via secondary poisoning compared with direct Pb toxicity to soil organisms. Standards for both types of receptors vary by factors of approximately 4 depending on soil eCEC. The data and models we have collated can be used for setting ecological soil quality criteria for Pb in different regulatory frameworks. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:1948–1961. © 2021 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.