Aerobic Exercise Training Reduces Cannabis Craving and Use in
                    Non-Treatment Seeking Cannabis-Dependent Adults

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Abstract

Background

Cannabis dependence is a significant public health problem. Because there are no approved medications for this condition, treatment must rely on behavioral approaches empirically complemented by such lifestyle change as exercise.

Aims

To examine the effects of moderate aerobic exercise on cannabis craving and use in cannabis dependent adults under normal living conditions.

Design

Participants attended 10 supervised 30-min treadmill exercise sessions standardized using heart rate (HR) monitoring (60–70% HR reserve) over 2 weeks. Exercise sessions were conducted by exercise physiologists under medical oversight.

Participants

Sedentary or minimally active non-treatment seeking cannabis-dependent adults (n = 12, age 25±3 years, 8 females) met criteria for primary cannabis dependence using the Substance Abuse module of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID).

Measurements

Self-reported drug use was assessed for 1-week before, during, and 2-weeks after the study. Participants viewed visual cannabis cues before and after exercise in conjunction with assessment of subjective cannabis craving using the Marijuana Craving Questionnaire (MCQ-SF).

Findings

Daily cannabis use within the run-in period was 5.9 joints per day (SD = 3.1, range 1.8–10.9). Average cannabis use levels within the exercise (2.8 joints, SD = 1.6, range 0.9–5.4) and follow-up (4.1 joints, SD = 2.5, range 1.1–9.5) periods were lower than during the run-in period (both P<.005). Average MCQ factor scores for the pre- and post-exercise craving assessments were reduced for compulsivity (P = .006), emotionality (P = .002), expectancy (P = .002), and purposefulness (P = .002).

Conclusions

The findings of this pilot study warrant larger, adequately powered controlled trials to test the efficacy of prescribed moderate aerobic exercise as a component of cannabis dependence treatment. The neurobiological mechanisms that account for these beneficial effects on cannabis use may lead to understanding of the physical and emotional underpinnings of cannabis dependence and recovery from this disorder.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00838448]

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Most cited references 25

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Exercise treatment for depression: efficacy and dose response.

Andrea L Dunn, Madhukar Trivedi, James B Kampert … (2005)

This study, conducted between 1998 and 2001 and analyzed in 2002 and 2003, was designed to test (1) whether exercise is an efficacious treatment for mild to moderate major depressive disorder (MDD), and (2) the dose-response relation of exercise and reduction in depressive symptoms. The study was a randomized 2x2 factorial design, plus placebo control. All exercise was performed in a supervised laboratory setting with adults (n =80) aged 20 to 45 years diagnosed with mild to moderate MDD. Participants were randomized to one of four aerobic exercise treatment groups that varied total energy expenditure (7.0 kcal/kg/week or 17.5 kcal/kg/week) and frequency (3 days/week or 5 days/week) or to exercise placebo control (3 days/week flexibility exercise). The 17.5-kcal/kg/week dose is consistent with public health recommendations for physical activity and was termed "public health dose" (PHD). The 7.0-kcal/kg/week dose was termed "low dose" (LD). The primary outcome was the score on the 17-item Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD(17)). The main effect of energy expenditure in reducing HRSD(17) scores at 12 weeks was significant. Adjusted mean HRSD(17) scores at 12 weeks were reduced 47% from baseline for PHD, compared with 30% for LD and 29% for control. There was no main effect of exercise frequency at 12 weeks. Aerobic exercise at a dose consistent with public health recommendations is an effective treatment for MDD of mild to moderate severity. A lower dose is comparable to placebo effect.

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A psychomotor stimulant theory of addiction.

Robert Wise, M Bozarth (1987)

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Exercise-induced behavioral recovery and neuroplasticity in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-lesioned mouse basal ganglia.

R E Hogg, Simon E. Fisher, Matthew S Bremmer … (2004)

Physical activity has been shown to be neuroprotective in lesions affecting the basal ganglia. Using a treadmill exercise paradigm, we investigated the effect of exercise on neurorestoration. The 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-lesioned mouse model provides a means to investigate the effect of exercise on neurorestoration because 30-40% of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons survive MPTP lesioning and may provide a template for neurorestoration to occur. MPTP-lesioned C57 BL/6J mice were administered MPTP (four injections of 20 mg/kg free-base, 2 hr apart) or saline and divided into the following groups: (1). saline; (2). saline + exercise; (3). MPTP; and (4) MPTP + exercise. Mice in exercise groups were run on a motorized treadmill for 30 days starting 4 days after MPTP lesioning (a period after which MPTP-induced cell death is complete). Initially, MPTP-lesioned + exercise mice ran at slower speeds for a shorter amount of time compared to saline + exercise mice. Both velocity and endurance improved in the MPTP + exercise group to near normal levels over the 30-day exercise period. The expression of proteins and genes involved in basal ganglia function including the dopamine transporter (DAT), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), and the dopamine D1 and D2 receptors, as well as alterations on glutamate immunolabeling were determined. Exercise resulted in a significant downregulation of striatal DAT in the MPTP + exercise compared to MPTP nonexercised mice and to a lesser extent in the saline + exercised mice compared to their no-exercise counterparts. There was no significant difference in TH protein levels between MPTP and MPTP + exercise groups at the end of the study. The expression of striatal dopamine D1 and D2 receptor mRNA transcript was suppressed in the saline + exercise group; however, dopamine D2 transcript expression was increased in the MPTP + exercise mice. Immunoelectron microscopy indicated that treadmill exercise reversed the lesioned-induced increase in nerve terminal glutamate immunolabeling seen after MPTP administration. Our data demonstrates that exercise promotes behavioral recovery in the injured brain by modulating genes and proteins important to basal ganglia function. Copyright 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

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Author and article information

Contributors

: Role: Editor

Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): PLoS One

Journal ID (publisher-id): plos

Journal ID (pmc): plosone

Title: PLoS ONE

Publisher: Public Library of Science (San Francisco, USA )

ISSN (Electronic): 1932-6203

Publication date Collection: 2011

Publication date (Electronic): 8 March 2011

Volume: 6

Issue: 3

Electronic Location Identifier: e17465

Affiliations

[1 ]Energy Balance Laboratory, Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America

[2 ]Addiction Center and Psychiatric Neuroimaging Program, Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America

[3 ]Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America

[4 ]Department of Biostatistics, School of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America

[5 ]Department of Radiology and Radiological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America

[6 ]Vanderbilt University Institute of Imaging Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America

University of Granada, Spain

Author notes

* E-mail: maciej.buchowski@ 123456vanderbilt.edu

Conceived and designed the experiments: MSB PRM RLC MSD. Performed the experiments: NNM. Analyzed the data: MSB MSD RLC EC. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: MSB MSD. Wrote the paper: MSB EC SP MSD RLC PRM.

Article

Publisher ID: PONE-D-10-04685

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0017465

PMC ID: 3050879

PubMed ID: 21408154

SO-VID: 8589e407-5f66-474d-b5df-67de2bb2fbb3

Copyright © Buchowski et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

History

Date received : 1 November 2010

Date accepted : 2 February 2011

Page count

Pages: 6

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Aerobic Exercise Training Reduces Cannabis Craving and Use in Non-Treatment Seeking Cannabis-Dependent Adults

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Abstract

Background

Aims

Design

Participants

Measurements

Findings

Conclusions

Trial Registration

Related collections

PLOS Climate

Most cited references 25

Exercise treatment for depression: efficacy and dose response.

A psychomotor stimulant theory of addiction.

Exercise-induced behavioral recovery and neuroplasticity in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-lesioned mouse basal ganglia.

Author and article information

Contributors

Journal

Affiliations

Author notes

Article

History

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Comments

Comment on this article

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Cited by 23

Most referenced authors 270