Suspected Adulteration of Commercial Kratom Products with 7-Hydroxymitragynine.

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Abstract

Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa), a plant native to Southeast Asia, has been used for centuries for its stimulant and opium-like effects. Mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine, exclusive to M. speciosa, are the alkaloids primary responsible for Kratom's biologic and psychoactive profile, and likely contribute to its problematic use. We purchased several commercially available Kratom analogs for analysis and through our results, present evidence of probable adulteration with the highly potent and addictive plant alkaloid, 7-hydroxymitragynine.

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Loss of morphine-induced analgesia, reward effect and withdrawal symptoms in mice lacking the mu-opioid-receptor gene.

H Matthes, R. Maldonado, F Simonin … (1996)

Despite tremendous efforts in the search for safe, efficacious and non-addictive opioids for pain treatment, morphine remains the most valuable painkiller in contemporary medicine. Opioids exert their pharmacological actions through three opioid-receptor classes, mu, delta and kappa, whose genes have been cloned. Genetic approaches are now available to delineate the contribution of each receptor in opioid function in vivo. Here we disrupt the mu-opioid-receptor gene in mice by homologous recombination and find that there are no overt behavioural abnormalities or major compensatory changes within the opioid system in these animals. Investigation of the behavioural effects of morphine reveals that a lack of mu receptors abolishes the analgesic effect of morphine, as well as place-preference activity and physical dependence. We observed no behavioural responses related to delta- or kappa-receptor activation with morphine, although these receptors are present and bind opioid ligands. We conclude that the mu-opioid-receptor gene product is the molecular target of morphine in vivo and that it is a mandatory component of the opioid system for morphine action.

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Following “the Roots” of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): The Evolution of an Enhancer from a Traditional Use to Increase Work and Productivity in Southeast Asia to a Recreational Psychoactive Drug in Western Countries

Eduardo Cinosi, Giovanni Martinotti, Pierluigi Simonato … (2015)

The use of substances to enhance human abilities is a constant and cross-cultural feature in the evolution of humanity. Although much has changed over time, the availability on the Internet, often supported by misleading marketing strategies, has made their use even more likely and risky. This paper will explore the case of Mitragyna speciosa Korth. (kratom), a tropical tree used traditionally to combat fatigue and improve work productivity among farm populations in Southeast Asia, which has recently become popular as novel psychoactive substance in Western countries. Specifically, it (i) reviews the state of the art on kratom pharmacology and identification; (ii) provides a comprehensive overview of kratom use cross-culturally; (iii) explores the subjective experiences of users; (iv) identifies potential risks and side-effects related to its consumption. Finally, it concludes that the use of kratom is not negligible, especially for self-medication, and more clinical, pharmacological, and socioanthropological studies as well as a better international collaboration are needed to tackle this marginally explored phenomenon.

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Self-treatment of opioid withdrawal using kratom (Mitragynia speciosa korth).

Edward Boyer, Kavita Babu, Jessica Adkins … (2008)

Kratom (Mitragynia speciosa korth) is recognized increasingly as a remedy for opioid withdrawal by individuals who self-treat chronic pain. A patient who had abruptly ceased injection hydromorphone abuse self-managed opioid withdrawal and chronic pain using kratom. After co-administering the herb with modafinil he experienced a tonic-clonic seizure, but he reported only modest abstinence once kratom administration stopped. We confirmed the identity of the plant matter he ingested as kratom and identified no contaminants or adulterants. We also conducted high-throughput molecular screening and the binding affinity at mu, delta and kappa receptors of mitragynine. We report the self-treatment of chronic pain and opioid withdrawal with kratom. The predominant alkaloid of kratom, mitragynine, binds mu- and kappa-opioid receptors, but has additional receptor affinities that might augment its effectiveness at mitigating opioid withdrawal. The natural history of kratom use, including its clinical pharmacology and toxicology, are poorly understood.

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Author and article information

Journal

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): J Med Toxicol

Title: Journal of medical toxicology : official journal of the American College of Medical Toxicology

Publisher: Springer Nature

ISSN (Electronic): 1937-6995

ISSN (Print): 1556-9039

Publication date (Electronic): Dec 2016

Volume: 12

Issue: 4

Affiliations

[1 ] Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Ave North, Worcester, MA, 01655, USA. alicia.lydecker@gmail.com.

[2 ] Department of Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, 104A Faser Hall, P.O. Box 1848, University, MS, 38677-1848, USA.

[3 ] Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, 417 Faser Hall, P.O. Box 1848, University, MS, 38677-1848, USA.

[4 ] Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Ave North, Worcester, MA, 01655, USA.

Article

Publisher Item ID: 10.1007/s13181-016-0588-y

DOI: 10.1007/s13181-016-0588-y

PMC ID: 5135684

PubMed ID: 27752985

SO-VID: c34cc913-d1f7-4606-9bcb-77cc48aa3350

History

Keywords: Mitragyna speciosa,Drugs of abuse,Kratom,7-Hydroxymitragynine,Mitragynine

Data availability:

Keywords: Mitragyna speciosa, Drugs of abuse, Kratom, 7-Hydroxymitragynine, Mitragynine

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Suspected Adulteration of Commercial Kratom Products with 7-Hydroxymitragynine.

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Algerian Journal of Natural Products

Most cited references 71

Loss of morphine-induced analgesia, reward effect and withdrawal symptoms in mice lacking the mu-opioid-receptor gene.

Following “the Roots” of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): The Evolution of an Enhancer from a Traditional Use to Increase Work and Productivity in Southeast Asia to a Recreational Psychoactive Drug in Western Countries

Self-treatment of opioid withdrawal using kratom (Mitragynia speciosa korth).

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