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      Evaluation of a social franchising and telemedicine programme and the care provided for childhood diarrhoea and pneumonia, Bihar, India Translated title: Évaluation d'un programme de franchises sociales et télémédecine et de la prise en charge de la diarrhée et de la pneumonie infantiles dans l’État du Bihar (Inde) Translated title: Evaluación de un programa de telemedicina y franquicia social y la atención proporcionada para la diarrea y la neumonía infantiles, Bihar, India Translated title: تقييم لأحد البرامج ولمستوى الرعاية المقدمة لحالات الإصابة بالإسهال والالتهاب الرئوي بين الأطفال في بيهار بالهند Translated title: 对印度比哈尔的社会连锁远程医疗项目以及所提供的儿童腹泻与肺炎护理的评估 Translated title: Оценка программы социального франчайзинга и телемедицины и медицинского обслуживания при  детской диарее и пневмониив штате Бихар, Индия

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          Abstract

          Objective

          To evaluate the impact on the quality of the care provided for childhood diarrhoea and pneumonia in Bihar, India, of a large-scale, social franchising and telemedicine programme – the World Health Partners’ Sky Program.

          Methods

          We investigated changes associated with the programme in the knowledge and performance of health-care providers by carrying out 810 assessments in a representative sample of providers in areas where the programme was and was not implemented. Providers were assessed using hypothetical patient vignettes and the standardized patient method both before and after programme implementation, in 2011 and 2014, respectively. Differences in providers’ performance between implementation and nonimplementation areas were assessed using multivariate difference-in-difference linear regression models.

          Findings

          The programme did not significantly improve health-care providers’ knowledge or performance with regard to childhood diarrhoea or pneumonia in Bihar. There was a persistent large gap between knowledge of appropriate care and the care actually delivered.

          Conclusion

          Social franchising has received attention globally as a model for delivering high-quality care in rural areas in the developing world but supporting data are scarce. Our findings emphasize the need for sound empirical evidence before social franchising programmes are scaled up.

          Résumé

          Objectif

          Évaluer l'impact d'un programme à large échelle de franchises sociales et de télémédecine -le programme « Sky » de WHP (World Health Partners)- sur la qualité de la prise en charge de la diarrhée et de la pneumonie infantiles dans le Bihar, en Inde.

          Méthodes

          Nous avons étudié les changements associés à ce programme en termes de connaissances et de performances des prestataires de soins de santé, en réalisant 810 évaluations sur un échantillon représentatif de prestataires de soins, dans des régions couvertes et non-couvertes par le programme. Les prestataires ont été évalués en utilisant des scénarios de patients hypothétiques et la méthode du patient standardisé, avant et après la mise en œuvre du programme, en 2011 et 2014 respectivement. Les différences constatées dans les performances des prestataires entre les régions couvertes et non-couvertes par le programme ont été évaluées avec des modèles multivariés de régression linéaire de l'écart des différences.

          Résultats

          Le programme n'a pas sensiblement amélioré les connaissances ou les performances des prestataires de soins en lien avec les deux maladies infantiles étudiées, dans le Bihar. En revanche, notre étude montre qu'un gros écart persiste entre la connaissance des soins appropriés et les soins effectivement dispensés.

          Conclusion

          Les franchises sociales retiennent actuellement l'attention du monde entier en tant que solution envisageable pour obtenir des soins de grande qualité dans les régions rurales des pays en développement, mais les données probantes sont encore rares. Nos résultats soulignent la nécessité d'obtenir des données empiriques solides avant d'intensifier le déploiement de programmes de franchises sociales.

          Resumen

          Objetivo

          Evaluar el impacto en la calidad de la atención proporcionada para la diarrea y la neumonía infantiles en Bihar, India, de un programa de telemedicina y franquicia social a gran escala, el programa Sky de la ONG World Health Partners.

          Métodos

          Se investigaron los cambios relacionados con el programa en el conocimiento y el rendimiento de los proveedores de atención de salud realizando 810 evaluaciones en una muestra representativa de proveedores en zonas en las que el programa se implementó y en zonas en las que no. Los proveedores fueron evaluados a través de viñetas de pacientes hipotéticos y el método del paciente estandarizado antes y después de la implementación del programa, en 2011 y 2014, respectivamente. Se evaluaron las diferencias en cuanto al rendimiento de los proveedores entre las zonas de implementación y las de no implementación utilizando unos modelos de regresión lineal multivariables de diferencias en diferencias.

          Resultados

          El programa no mejoró de forma significativa el conocimiento ni el rendimiento de los proveedores de atención de salud en cuanto a la diarrea o la neumonía infantil en Bihar. El resultado fue una gran y constante diferencia entre el conocimiento de la atención adecuada y la que se proporcionaba.

          Conclusión

          La franquicia social ha recibido atención a escala mundial como un modelo para proporcionar una atención de alta calidad en zonas rurales del mundo en desarrollo, aunque los datos que lo fundamentan son escasos. Los resultados destacan la necesidad de una prueba empírica adecuada antes de ampliar los programas de franquicia social.

          ملخص

          الهدف تقييم التأثير على نوعية الرعاية المقدمة لحالات الإصابة بالإسهال والالتهاب الرئوي بين الأطفال في بيهار بالهند، من خلال برنامج واسع النطاق لشبكات خدمات الرعاية الاجتماعية والعلاج الطبي عن بُعد، وهو المتمثل في برنامج سكاي التابع لمنظمة "وورلد هيلث بارتنرز".

          الطريقة

          قمنا بالتحقيق في التغييرات المرتبطة بالبرنامج من حيث معرفة وأداء مقدمي الرعاية الصحية من خلال تنفيذ 810 تقييمات في عينة تمثيلية لمقدمي الرعاية في المناطق التي تم تنفيذ البرنامج فيها والمناطق الأخرى التي لم يتم التنفيذ فيها. وتم تقييم مقدمي الرعاية باستخدام توصيفات افتراضية للمرضى والطريقة المعيارية للتعامل مع المرضى قبل تنفيذ البرنامج وبعده، وذلك في عامي 2011 و2014 على التوالي. وتم تقييم الاختلافات في أداء مقدمي الرعاية بين المناطق التي تم فيها التنفيذ والمناطق التي لم يمتد إليها التنفيذ، وذلك باستخدام نماذج الانحدار الخطي متعددة المتغيرات بأسلوب قياس الاختلاف المتباين.

          النتائج

          لم يحقق البرنامج تحسنًا كبيرًا في معرفة مقدمي الرعاية الصحية ولا أدائهم فيما يتعلق بحالات الإصابة بالإسهال أو الالتهاب الرئوي بين الأطفال في بيهار. وكانت هناك فجوة كبيرة ومستمرة بين معرفة الرعاية المناسبة والرعاية المقدمة بالفعل.

          الاستنتاج

          حظيت شبكات خدمات الرعاية الاجتماعية بالاهتمام على المستوى العالمي كنموذج لتقديم الرعاية عالية الجودة في المناطق الريفية في العالم النامي ولكن البيانات الداعمة كانت شحيحة. وتؤكد نتائجنا على الحاجة إلى أدلة تجريبية سليمة قبل توسيع نطاق شبكات خدمات الرعاية الاجتماعية.

          摘要

          目的

          旨在评估大型社会连锁远程医疗项目——世界卫生伙伴天空计划对印度比哈尔邦地区儿童腹泻与肺炎护理质量的影响。

          方法

          通过对该项目实行及未实行地区医疗护理提供者的代表性样本开展 810 次评估,我们调查了提供者在知识与表现方面与该项目相关的变化。 分别在 2011 年与 2014 年,即该项目实行前后,通过采用假定患者情境与标准化患者方法对提供者进行评估。 通过采用多元线性回归模型双重差分析法对实行与未实行地区提供者表现的差异进行评估。

          结果

          该项目未能显著提升比哈尔邦地区儿童腹泻或肺炎卫生护理提供者的知识或表现。 得当的护理知识与实际提供的护理之间仍存在巨大差距。

          结论

          社会连锁项目,作为一种为发展中国家乡村地区提供高质量护理的模型,已获得了全球的关注,但缺乏支持性数据。 我们的结果突出了扩大社会连锁项目之前对完备的经验性证据的需求。

          Резюме

          Цель

          Оценить влияние крупномасштабной программы социального франчайзинга и телемедицины — программы Sky международной некоммерческой организации World Health Partners (Партнеры в области здравоохранения) — на качество медицинского обслуживания при детской диарее и пневмонии в штате Бихар, Индия.

          Методы

          Авторы исследовали изменения, связанные с программой, в уровне знаний и показателях эффективности работы медицинских работников, проведя 810 оценок в репрезентативной выборке медицинских работников в тех областях, где программа была и где не была реализована. Оценка медицинских работников проводилась с помощью виньеток (т. е. сценариев) с гипотетическими пациентами и метода, использующего стандартизованных пациентов, до и после реализации программы в 2011 и 2014 годах соответственно. Различия в показателях эффективности работы медицинских работников между областями, где программа была и где не была реализована, оценивались с использованием многофакторных моделей линейной регрессии методом «разность разностей».

          Результаты

          Программа не оказала значительного влияния на уровень знаний медицинских работников или эффективность их работы в отношении детской диареи или пневмонии в штате Бихар. Наблюдался постоянный большой разрыв между знанием о надлежащем уходе и фактически оказанной медицинской помощью.

          Вывод

          Социальный франчайзинг привлек общемировое внимание как модель для оказания высококачественной помощи в сельских районах в развивающихся странах, но при этом подкрепляющих данных недостаточно. Сделанные выводы подчеркивают необходимость получения надежных эмпирических данных до того, как будет расширен масштаб программ социального франчайзинга.

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          Most cited references42

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          Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality in 2000-13, with projections to inform post-2015 priorities: an updated systematic analysis.

          Trend data for causes of child death are crucial to inform priorities for improving child survival by and beyond 2015. We report child mortality by cause estimates in 2000-13, and cause-specific mortality scenarios to 2030 and 2035. We estimated the distributions of causes of child mortality separately for neonates and children aged 1-59 months. To generate cause-specific mortality fractions, we included new vital registration and verbal autopsy data. We used vital registration data in countries with adequate registration systems. We applied vital registration-based multicause models for countries with low under-5 mortality but inadequate vital registration, and updated verbal autopsy-based multicause models for high mortality countries. We used updated numbers of child deaths to derive numbers of deaths by causes. We applied two scenarios to derive cause-specific mortality in 2030 and 2035. Of the 6·3 million children who died before age 5 years in 2013, 51·8% (3·257 million) died of infectious causes and 44% (2·761 million) died in the neonatal period. The three leading causes are preterm birth complications (0·965 million [15·4%, uncertainty range (UR) 9·8-24·5]; UR 0·615-1·537 million), pneumonia (0·935 million [14·9%, 13·0-16·8]; 0·817-1·057 million), and intrapartum-related complications (0·662 million [10·5%, 6·7-16·8]; 0·421-1·054 million). Reductions in pneumonia, diarrhoea, and measles collectively were responsible for half of the 3·6 million fewer deaths recorded in 2013 versus 2000. Causes with the slowest progress were congenital, preterm, neonatal sepsis, injury, and other causes. If present trends continue, 4·4 million children younger than 5 years will still die in 2030. Furthermore, sub-Saharan Africa will have 33% of the births and 60% of the deaths in 2030, compared with 25% and 50% in 2013, respectively. Our projection results provide concrete examples of how the distribution of child causes of deaths could look in 15-20 years to inform priority setting in the post-2015 era. More evidence is needed about shifts in timing, causes, and places of under-5 deaths to inform child survival agendas by and beyond 2015, to end preventable child deaths in a generation, and to count and account for every newborn and every child. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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            Using natural experiments to evaluate population health interventions: new Medical Research Council guidance.

            Natural experimental studies are often recommended as a way of understanding the health impact of policies and other large scale interventions. Although they have certain advantages over planned experiments, and may be the only option when it is impossible to manipulate exposure to the intervention, natural experimental studies are more susceptible to bias. This paper introduces new guidance from the Medical Research Council to help researchers and users, funders and publishers of research evidence make the best use of natural experimental approaches to evaluating population health interventions. The guidance emphasises that natural experiments can provide convincing evidence of impact even when effects are small or take time to appear. However, a good understanding is needed of the process determining exposure to the intervention, and careful choice and combination of methods, testing of assumptions and transparent reporting is vital. More could be learnt from natural experiments in future as experience of promising but lesser used methods accumulates.
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              Effect on maternal and child health services in Rwanda of payment to primary health-care providers for performance: an impact evaluation.

              Evidence about the best methods with which to accelerate progress towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals is urgently needed. We assessed the effect of performance-based payment of health-care providers (payment for performance; P4P) on use and quality of child and maternal care services in health-care facilities in Rwanda. 166 facilities were randomly assigned at the district level either to begin P4P funding between June, 2006, and October, 2006 (intervention group; n=80), or to continue with the traditional input-based funding until 23 months after study baseline (control group; n=86). Randomisation was done by coin toss. We surveyed facilities and 2158 households at baseline and after 23 months. The main outcome measures were prenatal care visits and institutional deliveries, quality of prenatal care, and child preventive care visits and immunisation. We isolated the incentive effect from the resource effect by increasing comparison facilities' input-based budgets by the average P4P payments made to the treatment facilities. We estimated a multivariate regression specification of the difference-in-difference model in which an individual's outcome is regressed against a dummy variable, indicating whether the facility received P4P that year, a facility-fixed effect, a year indicator, and a series of individual and household characteristics. Our model estimated that facilities in the intervention group had a 23% increase in the number of institutional deliveries and increases in the number of preventive care visits by children aged 23 months or younger (56%) and aged between 24 months and 59 months (132%). No improvements were seen in the number of women completing four prenatal care visits or of children receiving full immunisation schedules. We also estimate an increase of 0·157 standard deviations (95% CI 0·026-0·289) in prenatal quality as measured by compliance with Rwandan prenatal care clinical practice guidelines. The P4P scheme in Rwanda had the greatest effect on those services that had the highest payment rates and needed the least effort from the service provider. P4P financial performance incentives can improve both the use and quality of maternal and child health services, and could be a useful intervention to accelerate progress towards Millennium Development Goals for maternal and child health. World Bank's Bank-Netherlands Partnership Program and Spanish Impact Evaluation Fund, the British Economic and Social Research Council, Government of Rwanda, and Global Development Network. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Bull World Health Organ
                Bull. World Health Organ
                BLT
                Bulletin of the World Health Organization
                World Health Organization
                0042-9686
                1564-0604
                01 May 2017
                24 March 2017
                : 95
                : 5
                : 343-352E
                Affiliations
                [a ]Sanford School of Public Policy, Duke University, 302 Towerview Drive, 128 Rubenstein Hall, Durham, North Carolina, NC 27708, United States of America (USA).
                [b ]Department of Economics, Queen Mary University of London, London, England.
                [c ]Department of Anthropology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA.
                [d ]Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, USA.
                [e ]Indian Institute of Public Health, New Delhi, India.
                [f ]Sambodhi Research and Communications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India.
                [g ]Center for Health Policy and Center for Primary Care and Outcomes Research, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, USA.
                [h ]Department of Economics, University College London, London, England.
                Author notes
                Correspondence to Manoj Mohanan (email: manoj.mohanan@ 123456duke.edu ).
                Article
                BLT.16.179556
                10.2471/BLT.16.179556
                5418816
                9f68363c-71b0-4fbc-80e6-2f14b4101e1b
                (c) 2017 The authors; licensee World Health Organization.

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution IGO License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/legalcode), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. In any reproduction of this article there should not be any suggestion that WHO or this article endorse any specific organization or products. The use of the WHO logo is not permitted. This notice should be preserved along with the article's original URL.

                History
                : 31 May 2016
                : 20 December 2016
                : 31 January 2017
                Categories
                Research
                Non Theme Issue

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