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      • Record: found
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      Polysaccharide Structures and Their Hypocholesterolemic Potential

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          Abstract

          Several classes of polysaccharides have been described to have hypocholesterolemic potential, namely cholesterol bioaccessibility and bioavailability. This review will highlight the main mechanisms by which polysaccharides are known to affect cholesterol homeostasis at the intestine, namely the effect (i) of polysaccharide viscosity and its influence on cholesterol bioaccessibility; (ii) on bile salt sequestration and its dependence on the structural diversity of polysaccharides; (iii) of bio-transformations of polysaccharides and bile salts by the gut microbiota. Different quantitative structure–hypocholesterolemic activity relationships have been explored depending on the mechanism involved, and these were based on polysaccharide physicochemical properties, such as sugar composition and ramification degree, linkage type, size/molecular weight, and charge. The information gathered will support the rationalization of polysaccharides’ effect on cholesterol homeostasis and highlight predictive rules towards the development of customized hypocholesterolemic functional food.

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          The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host energy metabolism.

          Gijs den Besten, Karen van Eunen, Albert Groen … (2013)
          Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), the end products of fermentation of dietary fibers by the anaerobic intestinal microbiota, have been shown to exert multiple beneficial effects on mammalian energy metabolism. The mechanisms underlying these effects are the subject of intensive research and encompass the complex interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host energy metabolism. This review summarizes the role of SCFAs in host energy metabolism, starting from the production by the gut microbiota to the uptake by the host and ending with the effects on host metabolism. There are interesting leads on the underlying molecular mechanisms, but there are also many apparently contradictory results. A coherent understanding of the multilevel network in which SCFAs exert their effects is hampered by the lack of quantitative data on actual fluxes of SCFAs and metabolic processes regulated by SCFAs. In this review we address questions that, when answered, will bring us a great step forward in elucidating the role of SCFAs in mammalian energy metabolism.
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            Intestinal Crosstalk between Bile Acids and Microbiota and Its Impact on Host Metabolism.

            Annika Wahlström, Sama I. Sayin, Hanns-Ulrich Marschall … (2016)
            The gut microbiota is considered a metabolic "organ" that not only facilitates harvesting of nutrients and energy from the ingested food but also produces numerous metabolites that signal through their cognate receptors to regulate host metabolism. One such class of metabolites, bile acids, is produced in the liver from cholesterol and metabolized in the intestine by the gut microbiota. These bioconversions modulate the signaling properties of bile acids via the nuclear farnesoid X receptor and the G protein-coupled membrane receptor 5, which regulate numerous metabolic pathways in the host. Conversely, bile acids can modulate gut microbial composition both directly and indirectly through activation of innate immune genes in the small intestine. Thus, host metabolism can be affected through microbial modifications of bile acids, which lead to altered signaling via bile acid receptors, but also by altered microbiota composition.
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              Colonic health: fermentation and short chain fatty acids.

              Julia M W Wong, Russell de Souza, Cyril W C Kendall … (2006)
              Interest has been recently rekindled in short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) with the emergence of prebiotics and probiotics aimed at improving colonic and systemic health. Dietary carbohydrates, specifically resistant starches and dietary fiber, are substrates for fermentation that produce SCFAs, primarily acetate, propionate, and butyrate, as end products. The rate and amount of SCFA production depends on the species and amounts of microflora present in the colon, the substrate source and gut transit time. SCFAs are readily absorbed. Butyrate is the major energy source for colonocytes. Propionate is largely taken up by the liver. Acetate enters the peripheral circulation to be metabolized by peripheral tissues. Specific SCFA may reduce the risk of developing gastrointestinal disorders, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. Acetate is the principal SCFA in the colon, and after absorption it has been shown to increase cholesterol synthesis. However, propionate, a gluconeogenerator, has been shown to inhibit cholesterol synthesis. Therefore, substrates that can decrease the acetate: propionate ratio may reduce serum lipids and possibly cardiovascular disease risk. Butyrate has been studied for its role in nourishing the colonic mucosa and in the prevention of cancer of the colon, by promoting cell differentiation, cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis of transformed colonocytes; inhibiting the enzyme histone deacetylase and decreasing the transformation of primary to secondary bile acids as a result of colonic acidification. Therefore, a greater increase in SCFA production and potentially a greater delivery of SCFA, specifically butyrate, to the distal colon may result in a protective effect. Butyrate irrigation (enema) has also been suggested in the treatment of colitis. More human studies are now needed, especially, given the diverse nature of carbohydrate substrates and the SCFA patterns resulting from their fermentation. Short-term and long-term human studies are particularly required on SCFAs in relation to markers of cancer risk. These studies will be key to the success of dietary recommendations to maximize colonic disease prevention.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Pedro Fardim: Role: Academic Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Molecules
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Molecules
                Journal ID (publisher-id): molecules
                Title: Molecules
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 1420-3049
                Publication date (Electronic): 28 July 2021
                Publication date Collection: August 2021
                Volume: 26
                Issue: 15
                Electronic Location Identifier: 4559
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Coimbra Chemistry Center, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga Largo D. Dinis, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal; imvs@ 123456qui.uc.pt (I.M.V.S.); mmoreno@ 123456ci.uc.pt (M.J.M.)
                [2 ]LAQV-REQUIMTE, Chemistry Department, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; fernandamachado@ 123456ua.pt (F.M.); claudianunes@ 123456ua.pt (C.N.); mac@ 123456ua.pt (M.A.C.)
                [3 ]Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga Largo D. Dinis, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal
                [4 ]CICECO—Aveiro Institute of Materials, Chemistry Department, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: filipecoreta@ 123456ua.pt
                [†]

                These authors contributed equally to this work.

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8020-5994
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3076-9905
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7217-2790
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8898-6342
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9498-2460
                Article
                Publisher ID: molecules-26-04559
                DOI: 10.3390/molecules26154559
                PMC ID: 8348680
                PubMed ID: 34361718
                SO-VID: 509b91d0-8b2a-42f2-bcc6-22270bd19c33
                Copyright © © 2021 by the authors.
                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 16 July 2021
                Date accepted : 24 July 2021
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                Keywords: polysaccharides,chitosan,β-glucans,cholesterol homeostasis,viscosity,bile salt sequestration,microbiota,hypocholesterolemic ingredients,fiber
                Data availability:
                Keywords: polysaccharides, chitosan, β-glucans, cholesterol homeostasis, viscosity, bile salt sequestration, microbiota, hypocholesterolemic ingredients, fiber

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